
!iifi!±._^=3~ 




?(f^G7^ TEEATISE 



I 



STATE OF CALIFORNIA, 



REMEDIES RECOMMENDED FOR THEIR EXTERMINATION, 



v 
By MATTHEW COOKE, 

Chie " Executive Horticultural Officer. 





SACRAMENTO: 

STATE OFFICE : : : J. D. YOUNG, SUPT. STATE PRINTING. 

1881. 



\ 







-A. TEEATISE 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT AND FRUIT TREES 



STATE OF CALIFORNIA, 



AND REMEDIES RECOMMENDED FOR THEIR EXTERMINATION, 



By MATTHEW COOKE, 

Chief Executive Horticultural Officer. 




SACRAMENTO: 

STATE OFFICE : : : J. D. YOUNG, SUPT. STATE PRINTING. 

1881. 



PREFACE. 



■ 
To the Fruit Growers of California, and all whom it may concern : 

At a meeting of the State Board of Horticultural Commissioners, 
held on the thirtieth day of June, eighteen hundred and eighty-one, 
the following resolution was unanimously adopted : 

Resolved, That the Chief Executive Horticultural Officer be 
requested to prepare for publication, in pamphlet form, a brief, 
popular treatise on the more prominent insects, injurious to fruit 
and fruit trees; giving a description of their appearances, life, history, 
and the best means for their destruction. 

In compliance with the above request, this work is presented for 
your consideration. A careful reading is respectfully solicited. The 
object wished to be attained is to call your attention to the dangers 
that are threatening the fruit growing industry of California by 
the spread of insects injurious to fruit and fruit trees, viz.: Codlin 
Moth, Scale Insects, Red Spider (Mite), Caterpillars, Saw-flies, Pear 
Slug. Borers, Aphides, etc.; and to the laws passed for the protection of 
the horticultural and viticultural interests of the State, and, especially, 
to the remedies recommended for the extermination of said insect 
pests. 

In writing this work we are under special obligations to Mr. C. H. 

Dwindle, of the University of California, and Prof. J. Henry Com- 

stock, Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New 

York, for kind assistance. To Doctor A. S. Packard, of Providence, 

Rhode Island, for furnishing fourteen of the cuts. To Massachusetts 

Board of Agriculture, for use of reports, and to Messrs. Chapin and 

Vestal, San Jose, for use of report. To Messrs. M. Schmidt & Co., 

San Francisco, for the faithful manner in which they executed the 

cuts, and especially to their artist, Mr. Buchi, who made the sketches 

from nature. 

Respectfully, 

MATTHEW COOKE, 

Chief Executive Horticultural and Health Officer. 



OFFICERS AND MEMBERS 



OP THE 

t 



State Board of Viticultural Commissioners. 



ARPAD HARASZTHY, President San Francisco. 

Commissioner for the San Francisco District. 

€HAS. A. WETMORE, Vice President San Francisco. 

Commissioner for the State at Large. 

OHAS. KRUG, Treasurer St. Helena, Napa County. 

Commissioner for the Napa District. 

J. DkBARTH SHORB San Gabriel, Los Angeles County. 

Commissioner for the State at Large. 

ISAAC DbTURK Santa Rosa, Sonoma County. 

Commissioner for the Sonoma District. 

R. B. BLOWERS Woodland, Yolo County. 

Commissioner for the Sacramento District. 

-GEO. WEST Stockton, San Joaquin County. 

Commissioner for the San Joaquin District. 

L. J. ROSE San Gabriel, Los Angeles County. 

Commissioner for the Los Angeles District. 

G. G. BLANCHARD Placerville, El Dorado County. 

Commissioner for the El Dorado District. 

JOHN H. WHEELER, 
Secretary. 

CHAS. A. WETMORE, 
Chief Executive Viticultural and Health Officer. 



MATTHEW COOKE, 
Chief Executive Horticultural Officer. 



OFFICE OF THE BOARD: 

No. Ill Leidesdorff Street, San Francisco, Cal. 



OFFICERS AND MEMBERS 



State Board of Horticultural Commissioners. 



CHARLES II. DWINELLE, President Berkeley, Alameda County. 

Commissioner for the State at Large. 
W. W. SMITH Vacaville, Solano County. 

Commissioner for the Napa District. 

M. T. BREWER 1 Sacramento. 

Coynmissioner for the Sacramento District. 

W. B. WEST Stockton, San Joaquin County. 

Commissioner for the San Joaquin District. 
FELIX GILLET Nevada, Nevada County. 

Commissioner for the El Dorado District. 

ALBERT S. WHITE Riverside, San Bernardino County. 

Commissioner for the Los Angeles District. 

Dr. S. F. CHAPIN San Jose', Santa Clara County. 

Commissioner for the San Francisco District. 

A. CADWELL Petaluma, Sonoma County. 

Commissioner for the Sonoma District. 

MATTHEW COOKE Sacramento. 

Commissioner for the State at Large. 

ELLWOOD COOPER Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara County. 

Commissioner for the State at Large. 

CHARLES H. SHINN San Francisco. 

Commissioner for the State at Large. 

JOHN H. WHEELER, Secretary. 

Offices of the Board : 

No. Ill Leidesdorff Street, San Francisco. 

MATTHEW COOKE Office, Front and M Streets, Sacramento. 

Chief Executive Horticultural and Health Officer. 

STANDING COMMITTEES 

ON THE OCCURRENCES AND RAVAGES OF AND REMEDIES AGAINST INSECT PESTS: 

ALBERT S. WHITE 0n Citrus Trees ^ 

ELLWOOD COOPER On Olive Trees. 

S. F. CHAPIN On Deciduous and Ornamental Trees. 

MATTHEW COOKE and FELIX GILLET On the Codlin Moth. 

W. B. WEST On Red Spider, Mites, etc. 

W. W. SMITH and W. B. WEST On Fruit Packages. 

CHARLES H. SHINN and MATTHEW COOKE On Transportation and Quarantine. 

CHARLES H. DWINELLE On Rules and Regulations. 

M. T. BREWER On Conference with Shippers and Commission Merchants. 

FELIX GILLET On Borers Injurious to Fruit and Fruit Trees. 



BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS. 



Up to the date of this publication, County Boards of Horticultural 
Commissioners have been appointed as follows, authorized by an Act 
entitled "An Act to protect and promote the horticultural interests 
of the State," approved March 14, 1881 : 

Sacramento County — John Cox, Sutterville; Albert Halen, Folsom : 
Charles W. Gammon, Richland. 

Yolo County — James B. Saul, Davisville ; James Bullock, Wood- 
land ; I. N. Hoag, Washington. 

Solano County — A. T. Hatch, Cordelia; W. W. Smith, Vacaville; 
W. P. Durbin, Green Valley. 

Santa Barbara County — Henry Cooper, Ellwood; 0. N. Cadwell, 
Carpenteria ; E. H. Heacock, Lompoc. 

El Dorado County— M. S. Robinson, El Dorado; P.J. Isbell; Pla- 
cerville; P. D. Brown, Pilot Hill. 

San Bernardino County — Dr. S. R. Magee, Riverside ; S. E. A. 
Palmer, S. D. Roberts, San Bernardino. 

Santa Clara County — Dr. S. F. Chapin, D. C. Vestal, San Jose; 
Horace Wilson, Gilroy. 

Santa Cruz County — Dr. C. L. Anderson, Blakey Pilkinton, Samuel 
Drennan, Santa Cruz. 

San Joaquin County — W. B. West, Stockton; James Crozier, Ezra 
Fisk, . 

Amador County — R. M. Ford, Plvmouth; S. S. Hartman, Jackson, 
J. W. Violet, lone. 

Contra Costa County — Dr. John Strenzel, Martinez; P. F. Smith, 
Concord ; Averett Howard, Antioch. 

Nevada County — Felix Gillet, Nevada City; Charles Barker, Grass 
Valley; H. L. Hatch, Rough and Ready. 

Placer County — Herndon Barrett, Lincoln ; George W. Applegate, 
Clipper Gap; N. R. Peck, Ophir. 

San Diego County — J. M. Asher, W. C. Kimball, and 0. S. Chapin. 

Alameda County — A. D. Pryal, North Temescal ; G. P. Crane, and 
Martin Mendelhall. 

County Boards of Horticultural Commissioners should be appointed 
in the following counties: Alameda, Tuolumne, Calaveras, Marin, 
Sonoma, Butte, Yuba, Sutter, Los Angeles, Napa, San Diego, Tulare, 
Fresno, Mariposa, and Colusa. 

In case the fruit growers neglect to have a Board of Horticultural 
Commissioners appointed in their respective counties, it will be the 
duty of the Chief Executive Horticultural OrRce*r to appoint local 
Inspectors to enforce such quarantine rules and regulations as 
approved by the State Board of Viticultural Commissioners, and 
authorized by sections three and four of an Act entitled "An Act to 
define and enlarge the duties and powers of the Board of State 
Viticultural Commissioners, and to authorize the appointment of 
certain officers to and protect the interests of Horticulture and 
Viticulture," approved March 4, 1881. 



ACTS OF THE LEGISLATURE. 



ACTS OF THE LEGISLATURE. 



AN ACT 

TO DEFINE AND ENLARGE THE DUTIES AND POWERS OP THE BOARD OF STATE VlTICULTURAL COMMIS- 
SIONERS, AND TO AUTHORIZE THE APPOINTMENT OF CERTAIN OFFICERS, AND TO PROTECT THE INTER- 
ESTS OF HORTICULTURE AND VITICULTURE. 

[Approved March 4, 18S1.] 
The People of the State of California, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows : 

Section 1. The Board of State Viticultural Commissioners, in addition to the duties and 
powers provided for by the Act entitled 'An Act for the promotion of viticultural industries 
of the State," approved April 15, 1880, shall, in respect to diseases of grape vines and vine pests, 
constitute a Board of Health. It shall, in addition to laboratory work, cause practical experi- 
ments to be made to determine or demonstrate the utility of known and new remedies against 
such diseases and pests. 

Sec. 2. The Board shall elect of their own number, or appoint from without their number, 
a competent person to serve as Chief Executive Viticultural Officer, who shall perform also the 
duties of Viticultural Health Officer, under direction of said Board, and subject to removal from 
such office at any time by the Board. 

Sec. 3. The Viticultural Health Officer shall have power, subject to the approval of the 
Board, to prevent the spread of vine diseases and vine pests, by declaring and enforcing rules 
and regulations in the nature of quarantine, to govern the manner of, restrain, or prohibit the 
importation into the State, and the distribution and disposal within the State, of all vines, vine 
cuttings, debris of vineyards, empty fruit boxes, or other material, on, or by which the conta- 
gion of vine diseases and germs of vine pests may be introduced into the State, or transported 
from place to place within the State; to declare and enforce regulations approved by the Board 
for the disinfection of vines, vine cuttings, vineyard debris, empty fruit boxes, and other sus- 
pected material dangerous to vineyards, while in transit, or about to be distributed, or trans- 
ported into, or within the State; to classify the vineyards and viticultural regions of the State, 
according to the degree of health, or vine disease prevailing therein, and to change the same 
as circumstances may require to be done, subjecting each class to such varying rules and 
regulations, respecting the introduction or transportation of vines, vine cuttings, and other 
material liable to spread contagion of disease among vines, as may, in the opinion of the Board, 
become necessary and expedient for the preservation of vineyards. Such rules and regulations 
shall be circulated in printed form by the Board among the vine growers and fruit dealers of 
the State, shall be published at least thirty days in two daily newspapers of general circulation 
in the State, not of the same city or county, and shall be posted in a conspicuous place at the 
county seat of each county affected by their provisions. 

Sec. 4. The Viticultural Health Officer may appoint local resident Inspectors in any and 
all of the viticultural regions of the State, whose duties shall be to report to him concerning 
the health of grapevines, the progress of vine diseases and pests, and all violations of the rules 
and regulations of the Board; to certify to the proper disinfection of vines, vine cuttings, 
empty fruit boxes, and other transportable articles required by the Board to be disinfected 
before transportation, or while in transit, or after delivery at "any point of destination; the 
methods of disinfection to be determined and approved by the Health Officer and the Board; 
to seize upon and destroy all vines, vine cuttings, debris of vineyards, empty fruit boxes, and 
other material liable to spread contagion, which maybe found in transit, or delivered after 
transportation, not certified to as required by the Board ; provided, that the same may be exempt 
from such destruction if the cost of disinfection by such Inspector shall be provided for by the 
owner or agent in charge thereof, as may be prescribed for such cases of negligence, carelessness, 
or violation of quarantine rules, and to keep a record of all proceedings as such Inspectors; pro- 
vided, that there shall be no compensation for such services of inspection, excepting a fee, not 
to exceed one dollar for each certificate of disinfection, in case of compliance with quarantine 
regulations, and not to exceed five dollars for each certificate of disinfection after seizure for 
non-compliance; provided, however, such inspection may be employed at the option of the 
owners of property requiring disinfection to disinfect the same. All vines, or other articles 
absolutely prohibited of importation or transportation, may be promptly destroyed by any 
Inspector discovering the same transported or in transit, in violation of regulations, and the cost 



ACTS OF THE LEGISLATURE. 9 

of such seizure, together with a fee of ten dollars, shall be paid to such Inspector out of any 
fine that may be collected from the party or parties guilty of such violation. Willful violation 
of the quarantine regulations of the Board shall be considered a misdemeanor, and punishable 
by a fine of not less than twenty-five not more than one hundred dollars. Whenever required 
for the convenience of vine or fruit growers, or fruit dealers, a resident Inspector shall be 
appointed upon petition of any three neighboring vine or fruit growers, or dealers in grapes, to 
reside in their vicinity, if not already provided for; and there shall be not less than two 
Inspectors appointed for each county which is subjected to such quarantine regulations, and 
they shall each be subject to removal at the will of the Viticultural Health Officer, if incompe- 
tent, or if they fail to perform their duties, or are unreasonably distasteful to vine growers and 
grape dealers. 

Sec. 5. It shall be also the duty of the Chief Executive Viticultural Officer to personally 
visit, examine, and report upon the several viticultural regions of the State; to prepare docu- 
ments for publication, as required by the Board, relating to any and all branches of viticultural 
industry, including treatises for the instruction of the public; to supervise the preparation of 
reports for publication, and especially report upon the practicability and means of eradicating 
diseases from vineyards, and to superintend experiments with known and new remedies. 

Sec. 6. All printing heretofore ordered by the Board shall be paid for out of the appropria- 
tions heretofore made for its use. All printing required hereafter shall be done by the State 
Printer. 

Sec. 7'. The salary of the Chief Executive Viticultural Officer shall be fixed by the Board, 
not to exceed one hundred and fifty dollars per month, for services while engaged as such 
officer, and his actual traveling expenses shall be allowed, not to exceed five hundred dollars 
per annum. 

Sec. 8. The Board of State Viticultural Commissioners shall also appoint an officer, who 
shall be especially qualified, by practical experience in horticulture, for the duties of his office, 
to perform similar duties respecting the protection of fruit and fruit trees as are provided for in 
this Act in reference to grapevines, with like powers; and the salary and traveling expenses of 
such officer shall be fixed by the said Board at the same amounts provided for in the case of the 
Chief Executive Viticultural Officer; and the said Board shall have power to establish such 
quarantine rules and regulations as are required for the protection of fruit and fruit trees from 
the spread of insect pests. 

Sec. 9. There is hereby appropriated for the uses of the Board of State Viticultural Commis- 
sioners, as set forth in this Act, and in the Act providing for its organization, out of any moneys 
in the State treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of ten thousand dollars for the year 
commencing July first, eighteen hundred and eighty-one, and ten thousand dollars for the year 
commencing July first, eighteen hundred and eighty-two; and the State Controller will draw 
his warrants upon the State Treasurer in favor of the Treasurer of the said Board for the said 
sums, or any part thereof, when they become available, upon proper demand being made for the 
same by said Board ; provided, that no claim shall be paid out of said appropriation until the 
same shall have been presented to and approved by the State Board of Examiners. 

Sec 10. This Act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. 



AN ACT 

To Protect and Promote the Horticultural Interests of the State. 

The Peopie of the State of California, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as folloius: 

Section 1. Whenever a petition is presented to the Board of Supervisors of any county, 
and signed by five or more persons who are resident freeholders and possessors of an orchard, 
or both, stating that certain or all orchards, or nurseries, or trees of any variety, are infested 
with scale bug, codlin moth, or other insects that are destructive to trees, and praying that a 
commission be appointed by them, whose duty it shall be to supervise their destruction, as 
hereinafter provided, the Board of Supervisors shall, within twenty days thereafter, select three 
Commissioners for the county, to be known as a County Board of Horticultural Commissioners. 
The Board of Supervisors may fill any vacancy that may occur in said Commission by death, 
resignation, or otherwise, and appoint one Commissioner each year, one month or thereabouts 
previous to the expiration of the term of office of any member of said Commission. The said 
Commissioners shall serve for a period of three years from the date of their appointment, 
except the Commissioners first appointed, one of whom shall serve for one year, one of whom 
shall serve for two years, and one of whom shall serve for three years, from the date of appoint- 
ment. The Commissioners first appointed shall themselves decide, by lot, or otherwise, who 
shall serve for one year, who two years, and who three years, and shall notify the Board of 
Supervisors of the result of their choice. 

2 



10 ACTS OF THE LEGISLATURE. 

Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the County Board of Horticultural Commissioners in each 
count*', whenever they shall be informed by complaint of any person residing in such county, 
that an orchard, or nursery, or trees, or any fruit packing house, storeroom, saleroom, or any 
other place in their jurisdiction, is infested with scale bug, codlin moth, red spider, or other 
noxi.-us insects liable to spread contagion dangerous to the trees or fruit of complainant, or 
their eggs or larvae, injurious to fruit or fruit trees, they shall cause an inspection to be made of 
the said premises, and if found infected they shall notify the owner or owners, or the person or 
persons in charge or possession of the said trees, or places, as aforesaid, that the same are 
infested with said insects, or any of them, or their eggs or larvsa, and shall require such person 
or persons to disinfect the same within a certain time to be specified. If, within such specified 
time, such disinfection has not been accomplished, the said person or persons shall be required 
to make application of such treatment for the purpose of destroying them as said Commissioners 
shall prescribe. Said notices may be served upon the person or persons owning or having 
charge or possession of such infested trees, or places, or articles as aforesaid, by any Commis- 
sioner, or by any person deputed by the said Commissioners for that purpose, or they may be 
served in the same manner as a summons in a civil action. If the owner or owners, or the 
person or persons in charge or possession of any orchard, or nursery, or trees, or places, or 
articles, infested with said insects, or any of them, or their larvre or eggs, after having been 
notified as above to make application of treatment as directed, shall fail, neglect, or refuse so to 
do, he or they shall be deemed g'vlty of maintaining a public nuisance, and any such orchards, 
nurseries, trees, or places, or articles thus infested, shall be adjudged and the same is hereby 
declared a public nuisance, and may be proceeded against as such. If found guilty, the Court 
shall direct the aforesaid County Board of Horticultural Commissioners to abate the nuisance. 
The expenses thus incurred shall be a lien upon the real property of the defendant. 

Sec. 3. Said County Board of Horticultural Commissioners shall have power to divide the 
county into districts, and to appoint a local Inspector for each of said districts. The duties of 
such local Inspectors shall be prescribed by said County Board. 

Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of said County Board of Commissioners to keep a record of their 
official doings, and to make a report to the Board of State Viticultural Commissioners on or 
before the first day of November of each year, who shall incorporate the same in their annual 
reports. 

Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of the Commissioners at large, appointed by the Board of State 
Viticultural Commissioners for such purpose, to recommend, consult, and act with the County 
Board of Commissioners in their respective counties, as to the most efficacious treatment to be 
adopted for the extermination of the aforesaid insects, or larvse, or eggs thereof, and to attend 
to such other duties as may be necessary to accomplish or carry out the full intent and meaning 
of this Act. 

Sec. 6. Each County Commissioner and local Inspector may be paid five dollars for each day 
actually engaged in the performance of his duties under this Act, payable out of the county 
treasury of his county ; provided, that no more shall be paid for such services than shall be 
determined by resolution of the Board of Supervisors of the county for services actually and 
necessarily rendered. 

Sec 7. Each of said Commissioners may select one or more persons, without pay, to assist 
him in the discharge of his duties, as he may deem necessarv. 

Sec 8. If any County Board of Commissioners, after having received complaint in writing, 
as provided for in section two of this Act, shall fail to perform the duties of their office, as 
required by this Act, they may be removed from office by the Board of Supervisors, and the 
vacancy thus formed shall be filled in the same manner as provided for in this Act. 

Sec 9. Nothing in this Act shall be construed so as to affect vineyards or their products. 

Skc 10. This Act shall take effect immediately. 



RULES FOR THE PROTECTION OF FRUIT TREES. 11 

RULES RECOMMENDED 
For the Protection of Fruit and Fruit Trees from the Ravages of Insects. 



Rule 1 . It shall be required of every fruit grower, owner of an orchard or orchards, or 
lands containing fruit trees, or persons in possession of lands on which there are any fruit tree 
or trees which are infested with codlin moth, its larvae or pupae (chrysalids), to destroy said 
codlin moth, ijs larva?, or pupse, before the first day of March each year, by scraping off all 
rough bark on said trees, and cleaning all crevices in bark and crotches. The scrapings must 
be gathered carefully and destroyed by burning or otherwise. (A spread made of old grain 
sacks, or other cloth material, should be spread on the ground around the body of the tree 
before scraping.) After scraping, the tree should be washed with an alkaline wash made from 
a soft soap containing at least nine per cent, of potash. This soap, when made, mixed with 
twenty-five per cent, of its weight with flour of sulphur. One pound of this mixture to each 
gallon of water used for Avashing trees. Instead of this wash, the whale oil soap and sulphur 
mixture known as codlin moth wash, one pound to each gallon of water; or, a mixture con- 
taining not less than one pound of commercial concentrated lye to three gallons of water.* 

Rule 2. All vegetable and other growth must be cleaned off the ground around trees 
infested with codlin moth, its larva? or pupa?, before the fifteenthf day of May of each year, 
and the soil made as smooth as possible, provided that all premises under water at that time 
may be excepted as to date. 

Rule 3. All boxes or packages stored in orchards or adjoining storerooms, sheds, or prem- 
ises, from one season to another, especially those used for the shipment of apples, pears, and 
quinces, from orchards known to be infested with codlin moth, etc., or boxes and packages 
known to have been in contact with such, must be disinfected by dipping in boiling water for 
at least two minutes, such water to contain in solution not less than one pound of commercial 
potash or five eighths of a pound of commercial concentrated lye to each twenty-five gallons of 
water used for such disinfection. 

Rule 4. All salerooms, storerooms, and packing-houses where fruit or fruit boxes or pack- 
ages used in shipping pears, apples, or quinces, or any other kind of fruit infested with codlin 
moth, its larvae or pupse, or scale bugs (insects), or any noxious insects known to be injurious to 
fruit or fruit trees, have been used or stored for any purpose, must be thoroughly disinfected as 
prescribed by the Chief Executive Horticultural Officer, or local Inspector, or County Horticul- 
tural Commissioner of district in which the premises are located. 

Rule 5. All fruit infested with codlin moth, scale bugs (insects), or any noxious insects 
known to be injurious to fruit and fruit trees, must be picked off the trees and destroyed by 
cooking or feeding to hogs, or in any other manner satisfactory to the County Horticultural 
Commissioner or local Inspector of the district where such tree or trees bearing such fruit are 
located. 

Rule 6. Before the fifteenthf day of May in each year, one or more bands of cloth or paper 
must be placed around each apple, pear, or quince tree contained or growing in any orchard 
where such trees or their fruit are known to be infested with codlin moth, its larvae or pupae. 
(Burlap, cut or torn in slips about eight inches wide, preferred.) The band or bands to be 
fastened around the body of the tree by cord or wire, or in any manner satisfactory to the 
Horticultural Commissioner or local Inspector of the district where such tree or trees are 
located. 

Rule 7. The bands must be examined every seventh day, and the larvae or pupa? found 
therein destroyed. 

Rule 8. All fruit trees, plants, or scions (excepting grapevines and cuttings), infested by 
scale bugs (insects), must be thoroughly disinfected by dipping or otherwise washing in an 
alkaline mixture containing not less than one pound of commercial concentrated lye to every 
two gallons of water, or by such wash as may be satisfactory to the Horticultural Commissioner 
or local Inspector of the district where such trees are located or in store. 

Rule 9. Any fruit tree or trees, plants, or scions, in any orchard or in any place, infested by 
red spider (mite), must be thoroughly washed with an alkaline wash as prescribed in Rule 8, 
or by such wash as may be satisfactory to the Horticultural Commissioner or local Inspector of 
the district where such trees are located or in store. 

* Where the washes containing sulphur have been used, they have proved an excellent preventive against 
mildew. 

t In districts where fruit ripens later than at Sacramento, the dates in Rules Nos. 2 and 6 may be made 
fifteen days later, viz : thirtieth day of May. 



12 DAMAGE TO ORCHARD PROPERTY. 

Rule 10. Empty boxes or packages returned from market, or any place whence shipped, 
with fruit infested with codlin moth, its larvse or pupae, or scale bugs (insects), or any noxious 
insects known to be injurious to fruit or fruit trees, or known to have been in contact with any 
boxes or packages containing fruit infested by said insects, must be disinfected by dipping in 
boiling water as prescribed in Rule 3. 

Rule 11. In cases where notice is served to disinfect empty boxes or packages just returned 
from market or in transit, the time allowed from date of notice shall not be less than one day. 

Rule 12. In cases where notice is served to disinfect empty boxes or packages used the pre- 
vious year, the time allowed from date of notice shall not be less than three days. 

Rule 13. In cases where notice is served to destroy fruit on trees infested with codlin 
moth, its larvse or pupee, or any noxious insect or insects known to be injurious to fruit or fruit 
trees, the time allowed from date of notice shall not be less than six days. 

Rule 14. In cases where notice is served to place bands on trees as prescribed in Rule 6, the 
time allowed from date of notice shall not be less than ten days. 

Rule 15. Any tree or trees, plants, or shrubs (grapevines excepted), infested by any species 
of scale bug (insect), red spider (mite), or any noxious insect or insects liable to spread contagion 
to fruit or fruit trees, must be disinfected with an alkaline wash as prescribed in Rule 8, or such 
wash as may be satisfactory to the Chief Horticultural Officer, or local Inspectbr, or County 
Horticultural Commissioner of the district where such trees are located. 



DAMAGE TO ORCHARD PROPERTY AND FRUIT CROPS. 



The aggregate amount of damage to orchard property in California 
by depreciation in value, caused by spread of insects injurious to 
fruit and fruit trees, within the last five years cannot be accurately 
stated, as there are not any statistics to refer to, but it can be safely 
estimated at two million of dollars. It is not claimed that this 
amount of actual damage was done, but fruit growers were ignorant 
of any reliable remedy, causing a greater depreciation in value than 
was necessary. The damage to apple, pear, and quince crops, by 
codlin moth and scale insects, since 1877, is at least fifty per cent, of 
whole crops produced. If to the above is added the damage to plum 
and orange crops, by scale insects ; by red spider (mite), on almond 
and cherry crops; the loss in currant orchards by borers; and the 
damage by caterpillars, squash bugs, etc., to fruit and foliage, not 
more than thirty-three and one third per cent of what the orchards 
are capable of producing can be classed as choice marketable fruit. 

Inquiries concerning diseases of trees and insect pests, not found 
heretofore in orchards, are frequent ; all tending to prove that the 
prospects of fruit growers in this State, are not encouraging, if 
active measures are not adopted for the extermination of insect 
pests. 

Query. — Can our orchards be protected from the ravages of insect 
pests ? 

_ Answer.— Yes, undoubtedly; by a united warfare for the destruc- 
tion of insect pests by all persons owning fruit trees, and other 
varieties of trees infested by noxious insects. 



THE CODLIN MOTH. 



15 



THE CODLIN MOTH 



" The Codlin Moth is now one of the permanent institutions of the State, and fruit growing, 
or at least apple and pear growing, have been rendered very unsatisfactory and uncertain." — 
Sacramento Record- Union. 

It is not necessary for our purpose to detail the amount of damage 
done the apple, pear, and quince crop of central California since 1874, 
by the insect pest known as the Codlin or Apple Moth (the parent 
of the apple worm), as unfortunately it is too well known. 

The moth belongs to the family of Tortrices, and is known to natural- 
ists as Carpocapsa pomonella (the Codlin or Apple Moth). The moth 
passes the Winter in the larva state, and in some instances, in the 
chrysalis form. The larva can be found under the loose bark, in the 
crotches, or indents, or cracks in the bark of trees infested t. ±e pre- 
vious year, or in the crevices of 
wood or wood work of rooms, or 
places where fruit infested by the 
larva was stored or packed. It is 
often found hibernating on bark 
of trees, from one to six inches 
below the surface of the ground, 
especially if the trees have smooth 
bark. In one case, where four 
hundred apple trees were dug up 
last Winter, the larvae were found 
in large numbers in the roots of 
such trees as were decayed at, or 
above the surface of the ground. 



Fig 




Description of Fig. 1. 

a. — Nest of larva as it appears on inside of bark when taken off tree. Color, drab. 

b. — Pupa or chrysalis. Color, dark amber. 

c. — Appearance of larva when cover is removed off Winter nest. Color, body yellowish white, 
head dark brown. 

d. — Appearance of bottom of Winter nest on bark when larva is removed following Spring. 

e. — A position the larva takes when looking for a tree or place to make its nest, when ready to 
assume the pupa or chrysalis form. 

Note.— When the larvae are full grown and ready to assume the pupa or chrysalis form, color light pink. 

/. — The moth — first appearance as perfect insect, carries its wings like a steep roof. 

g. — Moth with wings spread. Length of body, seven-sixteenths of an inch ; spread of wings, 
nearly three-fourths of an inch; color, body and legs, rich bronzed light drab; fore wings, mot- 
tled gray and drab, with dark copper bar across hinder margin, on which is a golden occellated 
patch near inner angle; hind wings, plain drab, a little darker than body. The moth, after 
depositing eggs, has assumed a light drab color on fore wings, and copper bar a very light color, 
scarcely perceptible, caused, probably, from flying among the branches and leaves. 

h. — Head of larva as seen through a glass magnifying power nine times. 

i. — In this figure we intended to represent the pupa or chrysalis case growing through nest 
prior to moth leaving it, but represented as larva, to show better. 

Note. — The figure would he correct if the chrysalis (b) was represented instead of larva (c). 

The figures a, b, c, d, e, and / are natural size; g is a little larger than natural size; h, as 
described. 



14 



THE CODLIN MOTH. 



If the Spring is warm and favorable, the larvse are ready to assume 
the pupa or chrysalis form by the fifteenth of April. The duration 
of the pupa or chrysalis state depends on external circumstances. If 
warm, Spring weather, the perfect insect may appear in from fifteen 
to twenty days, and may be prolonged to twenty or thirty days. 

The Spring of 1881 has proved an exception. We were shown 
Madalene pears on the sixteenth of May in which the larva had 
matured and left; also, on May 7th, found a pear with larva about 
eight days old. (This is about eighteen days earlier than usual.) 

FIRST APPEARANCE OF THE MOTH. 



The moth generally appears from April 25th to the 15th of May; 
a few in favorable locations by April 15th. The time at which the 
eggs arrive at maturity apparently coincides with the end or termi- 
nation of the pupa or chrysalis state, so that the sexes are ready to 
unite soon after transformation. 

The moths produced by the hibernating larvae deposit their eggs 
in the blossom end (or calyx) of the fruit, generally ; possibly 

because they cannot puncture 
Fi g- 2 - the epidermis (or skin) of the 

young fruit. Later broods de- 
posit their eggs on any part of 
the fruit. The eggs are attach- 
ed to the fruit by a pasty sub- 
stance. At the time the egg is 
deposited the skin of the fruit 
is punctured, making easy en- 
trance for the young larva. 
It is rare to find more than one 
egg on any apple, pear, or 
quince, or more than one larva. 
The larva is hatched in from 
seven to ten days, and begins 
to eat eagerly and burrow 
towards the carpellary ovarium, 
or core containing the seeds. 
(B, Fig. 2.) 




Description of Fig. 2. 

A. — Blossom end or calyx of apple, and where larva is supposed to enter the fruit. 

B. — Represents an empty space where carpellary ovarium or shell containing the seeds were 
located before the entrance of larva. 

C. — Represents the burrows made by the larva through the pericarp, by which it escapes from 
the fruit when it is ready to assume the pupa or chrysalis form. 

D. — Appearance of larva in burrow when six days old. 

E. — Appearance of larva in burrow when ten days old. 

The larva, when hatched, can scarcely be seen with the unaided 
eye; at six days, measures nearly one quarter of an inch in length, 
about as thick as fine silk thread. First signs of excrement at 
burrow (D, Fig. 2); at ten days, three eighth of an inch, and about 
as thick as a number twenty wire (E, Fig. 2). It has burrowed by 
this time about three fourths of the distance to the seed bag of fruit 



THE CODLIN MOTH. 15 

(B, Fig. 2); at twenty days, nearly full natural size (c, Fig. 1), and 
often as large as e, Fig. 1. 

When the larva is ready to assume the pupa or chrysalis form, it 
leaves the fruit by gnawing a hole through the pericarp (C, Fig. 2). 
Nature has supplied it with a spinneret, the opening apparently in 
the lower lip, from which issues a viscid fluid in a line stream, and 
hardens into silk on contact with the air. By this means it lowers 
itself to the ground or intervening branches. If it reaches the ground, 
it immediately crawls toward the tree; and on its journey can often 
be seen as e, Fig. 1. On reaching the tree, it searches for a nesting 
place under the loose bark in the crotches, or any cavity it can find. 
If it comes in contact with a branch when leaving fruit, it generally 
crawls toward the crotches, or until it reaches a hiding place. If 
under the loose bark, it commences building an oval-shaped wall, 
about one sixteenth of an inch high, composed of silk from the 
spinneret, and sometimes mixed with pieces gnawed off the bark. 
A silken cover is then put on the nest by using the spinneret; the 
whole completed in twenty-four hours (a, Fig. 1). If in a crevice of 
the bark, the nest is made in different shapes. It is noticeable in the 
Winter nest that the tops and sides are washed with fluid from spin- 
neret, making the nest water-proof to a great extent. 

The moth remains in the pupa or chrysalis form from nine to 
twelve days, in our usual May weather. At the proper time the pupa 
case is burst open, and the perfect moth appears (/, Fig. 1). 

It may be asked, how does the moth get out of the nest so neatly 
made, etc.? About twenty-four hours before transformation, the 
pupa forces its way through one end of the nest (i, Fig. 1 — see note in 
description), so that the perfect insect can easily escape. 

The chrysalids of this moth are capable of moving, from the time 
they assume the chrysalis or pupa form, until the insect escapes 
perfect. 

PROBABLE RATE OF INCREASE OF THESE MOTHS. 

Entomologists claim that of the lepidopterous insects, including 
butterflies and moths, nearly one thousand kinds are known in the 
United States. That each female lays from two hundred to five 
hundred eggs.* Taking two hundred as the lowest number, twelve 
female moths in one orchard would produce two thousand four hun- 
dred caterpillars; if one half these were females, they would produce 
two hundred and forty thousand. In proportion, the third genera- 
tion would reach twenty-four millions, supposing that no untimely 
deaths took place. 

Most of the books on this subject speak of the codlin moth as going 
through but one generation in a year. This may be true in colder 
climates and shorter seasons than ours, but in parts of our favored 
State there is no question that two or three generations or broods are 
common. From personal observation, we know that the rule for the 
Sacramento Valley is three broods each year. This year (1881), on 
account of the early appearance of the first moths, as noted above, 
we shall probably have four broods. These facts explain the excep- 
tional importance of this insect in California. 

* We have in our possession a vial containing eighty-five eggs deposited by one moth, 
Carpocapsa pomonella. 



16 



THE C0DLIN MOTH. 



Is this pest of the orchard only found in California? The damage 
done by this pest in the States east of the Rocky Mountains is too 
well known to need repeating. 

It has also infested many orchards in Utah Territory, and has 
seriously damaged the apple and pear crops in Tasmania, Australia. 



Fig. 3. 



REMEDIES RECOMMENDED. 

From the observations stated, we are led to believe that the 
destruction of this pest must be consummated while it is in the 
caterpillar state. 

At any time between the first day of November and the first day 
of March of each season, all the apple, pear, and quince trees, in any 
orchard infested by codlin moth, should be carefully scraped, and all 
loose bark removed, as follows: 

Provide some small ship scrapers and grind 
two of the edges to a concave curve (Fig. 3) so 
that they will fit the trunk of the tree better 
than a straight edge can (B and C, Fig. 3). 
Scrapers having a length of side of four inches, 
will be large enough, use handles to suit. Pro- 
cure a cloth made of old sacks or any material 
convenient, spread on the ground around the 
tree as far as the scrapings are likely to fall; 
then commence on the tree as far up as there 
is any rough loose bark, and scrape it carefully 
off. Also examine and scrape all crevices in 
the bark or those formed in the crotches of the 
tree. Continue scraping until you reach the 
ground. This done, gather the scrapings care- 
fully off the cloth, so that they can be burned 
or otherwise destroyed immediately. 
Be careful that you do not neglect gathering carefully the scrap- 
ings and destroying them, as on this point depends a great deal of 
your success. 

By thus burning the debris taken from the trees, the larvse hiber- 
nating in the debris are destroyed. 

In order to destroy any larvae remaining on the tree, or in the 
crotches, indents, or cracks, also to inaugurate the growth of a new 
smooth bark, a wash should be applied as recommended in Rule 1, 
page 11. The wash should be applied at a temperature of one hun- 
dred and thirty degrees.. 

Take a common whitewash brush and give the tree a good coat of 
the solution, or use a garden force pump of some form, commencing 
at the top as far up as there are any cracks or crevices in the bark, 
and wash down to the ground. P^epeat the washing before the 
Spring; this will destroy any larvae or chrysalids left on the tree. 

Bands should be placed on trees as follows: Take a piece of com- 
mon straw wrapping paper, say twenty-four inches long and ten or 
twelve inches wide, double it lengthwise (this will be sufficiently 
long for a tree seven inches in diameter— larger trees will require 
longer bands, in one or more pieces), and put around the tree a few 
inches above the ground; fasten it with a piece of wire or narrow 




THE CODLIN MOTH. 17 

strip of tin — either of them is preferable to cord, as they can be 
pressed into the dents on the surface of the tree. 

From experiments made, bands made of burlap or old grain sacks 
torn in strips are preferable. (See Rule 6, page 11.) 

The larva creeping up the tree, makes its nest under the band. 
These bands should be examined every seventh day, the larvae col- 
lected and destroyed. Paper or rags laid on the ground around the 
tree will answer partly the same purpose, but may not be so easily 
examined. It is also recommended that some paper or rags should 
be placed in the crotches of the tree and on the rough branches, so 
as to entrap any larva coming down the branches looking for a 
nesting place, and these should be examined as regularly as the 
bands. 

The use of bands only is advocated by many Eastern fruit growers, 
and also by some persons on this coast. A fruit grower of Monroe 
County, New York, reports experiments made by him, as follows: 

"He placed one band near the ground, on each of three trees, and 
captured, during the season, on the three trees with single bands, one 
hundred and ninety-eight larvae, or sixty-six for each tree. On three 
trees he placed one band near the ground and one band near the 
crotches. On the three trees with double bands, during the season, 
he captured three hundred and eleven larvae, or nearly one hundred 
and four for each tree." 

The experiments referred to are proof that the band system worked 
admirably. But your attention is called to the fact that five hundred 
and nine apples or pears were destroyed previous to the larvae being 
captured in the bands, with chances in favor of some escaping, 
which, if compared with the estimated rate of increase, would only 
be equal to the capture of a small number of the early moths. By 
scraping and washing the tree, as heretofore described, the larvae or 
pupae hibernating are destroyed, and prevented from propagating 
their kind. 

A prominent fruit grower, whose orchard is near to this city, pur- 
chased three hundred hogs, and placed them in his orchard. He 
employed men to pick fruit off his trees showing signs of larvae. 
The hogs followed the men from tree to tree, and ate all fruit thrown 
down. This operation was often repeated, so that the early broods 
were nearly destroyed, and a large percentage of the late crops saved. 
This is an excellent remedy, but expensive. Fruit infested picked 
off the trees and destroyed, will prove successful to the extent prac- 
ticed. 

IMPORTANT POINTS. 

To be successful, use every effort to destroy the spring brood of 
moths. 

Any means taken to destroy the early broods will prevent the late 
fruit from being lost. 

The Natoma Fruit Company, Folsom, Sacramento County, scraped, 
washed twice, and banded twenty-five hundred pear trees, at an aver- 
age cost, labor included, of six cents per tree. 
3 



18 THE CODLIN MOTH. 

Disinfect all boxes returned from market before taking into the 
orchard. (See Rule 10, page 12.) 

We have read statements by fruit growers that they have seen the 
codlin moth flying in large numbers.. In our investigations we have 
not seen more than two at any one time. 

The moth will live in glass seven days. 

The female moths deposit their brood of eggs within forty-eight 
hours. 

The egg cannot be seen plainly by the unaided eye. 

The best time to see the moths at work is at dawn of day, in the 
months of June and July. 

We do not think the female moths can be decoyed from the trees 
by burning lights at night in orchard, until all the eggs in the ovary 
are deposited. 

The moth deposits the eggs at night. 

Only united "action of fruit growers will gain a complete victory 
over this pest. 

Defer not your action — the time arrives as soon as the leaves fall. 

Part of the early fruit falls prematurely, when attacked by larvae, 
but little of the late fruit falls before the larvae escapes. 

The theory that the moth always deposits the egg on the fruit blos- 
som, and that it remains there until the fruit has grown to natural 
size, is a mistake. 

It is necessary where an examination is made of an orchard, to 
examine every tree carefully, of the apple, pear, and quince varieties. 

There are three broods of the codlin moth at least, each season, in 
the great central valley of California. 

Supposing the moth matured from the Winter larvae on the first 
day of May, the first brood of the season would reach perfection by 
(he twentieth of June, and the second brood by the twelfth of August. 
Those matured after the twentieth of August deposit the egg that 
produces the larvae and chrysalids for the next season. 

The larva apparently prefer the quince, and soft-barked apple 
trees for passing the Winter (hibernating). 

Do not think that the moth that produces the larvae found on dried 
fruit and the codlin moth are the same. This is a different species. 
Description: Length, half an inch; spread of wings, three fourths of 
an inch ; color, body dark drab; fore wings, yellow bar one eighth of 
an inch wide across shoulders, balance of fore wings mottled dark 
brown; carries wings roof-shaped; hind wings dark drab. 

It is not generally known how to distinguish the sexes of the cod- 
lin moth. Mr. Zeller discovered, on the upper surface of the hind 
wings of the male, a black pencil, or tufts of hair of considerable 
length. It grows from a point close to the base of the wing, and lies 
in a groove running alongside of the median nervure, about half 
the width of the wing, the groove forming a distinct keel-like mark 
on the under surface. It is not easily noticed, but can be readily 
detected on close examination. It can be raised by the point of a 
needle. 

HOW TO EXAMINE THE TREES TO FIND LARVA. 

Open the large blade of a pocket knife, and with its point and fore 
finger take off carefully the pieces of loose bark; examine the inside 



THE PEAR SLUG 



19 



part, and if the larva is there, you will find the nest, as shown in 
.«, Fig. 1. On removing the cover of the nest, it may contain either 
the larva {b, Fig. 1) or chrysalis (c, Fig. 1). All crevices and dents in 
the bark, and crotches, should be examined carefully. Some persons 
throw the bark away before examining it, thinking the nest is always 
•on the tree; this is a mistake. 

HOW TO PROCURE SPECIMENS OF THE MOTH. 

When you find the larva, if it is not on the loose bark, remove the 
piece of bark to which it is attached, place it in a small vial, and, if 
in the Summer time, inside of twelve days you will have a genuine 
specimen of the moth (f and g, Fig. 1). Fruit growers can get 
important information concerning the natural history and habits of 
the insect pests by experiments of this kind. 

Every fruit grower should unite in the crusade against this pest. 
*"In union there is strength." 



Fig. 4. 



PEAR SLUG— Selandria cerasi. (Peek.) 

"The pear slug (Fig. 4), and larvae feeding on a leaf 

of a pear tree, and showing the surface eaten in patches, 

lis a twenty-footed larva. It narrows rapidly behind 

I the swollen thorax, and is covered with a sticky, olive 

colored slime." — Packard. 

This pest has been reported this season from several 
counties, and appears to be spreading rapidly. It feeds 
upon the leaf of the pear,but is known to attack other 
varieties of trees. It eats the epidermis (skin) off the 
leaves. (See Fig. 5.) 

The egg is laid in a cut made in the leaf by the saw- 
like apparatus of the female, and the young larva is 
hatched in a few days, and begins eating the surface of 
the leaf. The larva, when it ceases feeding, drops to 
the ground, crawls beneath the surface, and spins a 
cocoon, and evidently hibernates in the ground. The 
fly is shining black; wings, hyaline (clear); lower parts 
of anterior legs a dirty white. There is apparently but 
two broods in each season. 

The full grown larva measures forty-five one hun- 
dredths of an inch in length ; pupa ovate, and the adult 
insect, twenty-eight one hundredths of an inch. Spread 
of wings, fifty-two one hundredths of an inch. 

Remedies. 

Sulphur, or powdered lime, or sulphur and lime (powdered) mixed, 
dusted on the leaves infested will effectually destroy the larvae. 

Dust taken from the highway and dusted on the leaves, is reported 
to have proved effective in destroying the larvae. 
• Spray the foliage with either of the sulphur washes recommended 
in Rule 1, page 11, and it will prevent the larvae from maturing. 




20 



THE SAW FLY. 



I 

of peai 



SAW FLY— Nematis similaris. (Norton.) 

n the last few years considerable damage has been done to foliage 
i pear trees in vicinity of Sacramento, by a small green larva. In 
the present season (1881) it has been reported from several counties. 
The young larvse appear about the time the trees 
FlG - 7 - are in leaf, and commence feeding on the foliage. 

(In 1880 we visited an orchard where we found 

pear trees of the 
Winter Nellis vari- 
ety almost entirely 
stripped of foliage.) 
The egg is laid 
by the female fly 
in a cut made in 
the leaf by the saw- 
like apparatus of 
the female, and 
hatches in a few 
days. At first it 
eats a short track 
along the leaf, then 
a small hole, and 
fastens itself by 
pro-legs. (Fig. 6.) 
When about one 
third grown, it 
leaves this hole, 
and either com- 
mences eating on 
the edge of the leaf 
or on the edge of 
another leaf, which 
it generally de- 
stroys (devours) en- 
tirely continuing 
from one leaf to another. (Have counted six larvse on one leaf.) 
m The larva, full grown, measures one half of an inch in length, has 
six thoracic legs, twelve pro-legs, and two anal pro-legs ; is a green 
color; the head is yellowish-green, the eyes black. When it ceases 
feeding the larva drops to the ground, or into the crotches of the 
trees or branches, and hides itself. It spins a tough, dark-brown, 
oval cocoon. In this cocoon it hibernates as a larva. (We judge 
from specimens kept through Winter of 1880-81, and from speci- 
mens now in our possession.) Only one brood has appeared each 
season. 

The adult insect (Fig. 7) is about three tenths of an inch in length ; 
expanse of wings, about three fifths of an inch ; the upper part of 
head and thorax, black ; abdomen, yellowish with a black transverse* 
band on dorsal half of each segment; wings, hyaline (clear), of a 
brownish hue. 




THE RED SPIDER. 



21 



Remedies. 

When the trees are planted in sandy soil, build a cone of sand 
around base of tree, then shake the branches ; the larvae, falling to the 
ground, cannot reach the tree over the sand placed around base; or, 
place a greased cloth band (see Art. Caterpillar, page 23) on the tree, 
then shake the branches; the larvae, falling off, cannot ascend the 
tree over the greased band. This should be done before the larvae 
are full-grown. Or spray the foliage with either of the sulphur 
washes. (See Rule 1, page 11.) 




Fig. 9. 



RED SPIDER— Tetranyehus telarius. (Linn.) 

The red mite, commonly called red spider, may be said to be a 
universal pest of the garden and hothouse, and, within a few years, 
has spread (as it were, unnoticed), until many or- 
chards in this State are seriously infested by it. This 
pest is especially noticeable on the almond trees, and 
is found on the apple, pear, plum, cherry, etc. Ap- 
pearance of almond trees infested by red spider: 
The body, or trunk of the tree, limbs, and branches, 
are a red color, and foliage sparce ; on others, the 
limbs and branches appear covered with iron-rust 
(Fig. 10); these signs denote the presence of myriads 
of these pests. On trees not seriously infested, they 
are generally found around the buds and branches. 
They are also found in trees infested by the scale 
insect. The red color mentioned is the color of the 
myriads of ova covering the surface of the bark, but 
can only be plainly seen with the aid of a glass. Ob- 
servation leads us to think that the female does not 
deposit eggs, but, at maturity, fastens herself to the bark 
or leaf, and dies. The covering removed, from fifteen 
to twenty whitish ova are found. The ovum changes, 
by an outer shell falling off, leaving an ovum of a red 
color, which produces a six-footed mite ; color, bright 
red ; legs scantily covered with spines. (In the females 
can be seen what may be termed germ balls, Fig. 8, as in 
some of the cecidomyian larvae.) In a few days it changes 
to an eight-footed mite (Fig. 9); color: body, blackish 
red; head, yellowish. The injury done by these mites is 
principally on the fruit and flower buds, and leaves, from 
which they take off the skin or epidermis, and by making 
a very fine web over the surface of the leaves and 
branches (the web is so fine it cannot be seen by the 
unaided eye). The matter noticed on the branches and 
foliage is, to a great extent, the debris left by the mites 
during the metamorphoses (changes). The debris and 
web prevent free respiration to the parts covered. 

This pest is found in every fruit growing county in the 
State, on all kinds of citrus and deciduous trees. 




22 



CATERPILLARS. 

Remedies. 



1. Leaves falling off trees infested by these mites should be care- 
fully raked together and burned. 

2.' All primings of trees infested should be burned. 

3. By spraying (or washing) the parts of a tree infested, before it 
leafs out, with a solution: One pound of commercial concentrated 
lye to one and a half gallons of water. Repeat the spraying (or 
washing) before the bloom appears, with either of the sulphur mix- 
tures recommended in Rule 1, page 11. 

Foliage and fruit of almond trees seriously infested with red mites 
this season, were washed with whale oil soap and sulphur mixture 
about the first of June, and proved successful. 

Dr. S. F. Chapin, of San Jose, exterminated the mites and ova on 
young deciduous trees by washing with a solution: One pound of 
concentrated lye to one gallon of water. 



CATERPILLARS. 

The orchard of Mr. DeLong, at Nayato, Marin County, was infested 
last Spring by caterpillars — a specie of the genus Clisiocampa, or 
Tent Caterpillar. The caterpillar is one and three fourths inches- 
in length, one fourth of an inch in diameter, and was full grown by 
the twelfth day of May. The body is sparingly clothed with soft and 
short hair, rather thicker and longer on the sides than elsewhere. 
The head is dark brown on each side, and dark brown above, leav- 
ing an inverted Y mark in the middle and front, jet black, and 
having much the appearance of a goblet, as one looks from its tail 
to head. The frontal mark is jet black, edged with a white strip- 
across and over the mouth parts, and on each side of the inverted 
Y. The ground color of the upper part of the body is evidently 
blue, with a dorsal row of oval orange spots, one on each segment; 
two subdorsal orange lines; also, two lateral orange lines. The dor- 
sal space not covered by dorsal spots, between the subdorsal lines,, 
is crinkled with fine black and orange lines ; between the subdorsal 
and lateral lines, on each side, the space is blue, slightly variegated 
with fine orange and black lines intermingled. The lower part of 
the body and feet are dusky blue, crinkled with orange and black, 
irregular lines, and an amber colored ring around base of prop-legs.. 
The caterpillars do not make a tent or web, although they live in 



Fig. 11. 




Fig. 12. 




colonies on the tree. The caterpillars spin their cocoons (Fig. 13) in, 
the folded leaves (Fig. 14) of the trees on which they feed, especially 
the apple. Pupa elongate, posteriorly attenuated, inclosed in a loose- 



CATERPILLARS. 



23 



Fig. 14. 



silken web, suffused in fine yellow powder. The moth appears in 
about sixteen days; is reddish brown, with two transverse, rust- 
brown, nearly straight parallel lines, on the fore wings. 
Male (Fig. 11.) Antennae, short curved, moderately 
bipectinated in both sexes, the pectinations gradually 
decreasing in length to the apex, and shortest in females ; 
thorax, robust, pilose (hairy); abdomen, elongate, robust 
in female, and tufted in both; femura (thigh) and tibia 
(shin) hairy. It expands one and three fourths inches. 




Fig. 13. 



Fig. 1 



Fig. II 








The female moth (Fig. 12) lays her eggs, about two hundred in num- 
ber, in rows around the new growth of wood (Fig. 15), and covers them 
with an apparent water-proof substance, to protect them through 
the Winter season. About the time the leaves are unfolding in the 
Spring, the young hatch, and feed on the foliage and young fruit. 
Mr. De Long had a block of two thousand apple trees completely 
stripped of fruit and foliage. 

Method adopted by Mr. DeLong for destroying the Caterpillars. 

He placed a band of butter-cloth about four inches wide, covered 
with tallow, on the trees about two feet above the ground. He dis- 
covered that the caterpillars could form bridges over the tallow, 
especially at night. Over the tallow he placed soft lard, which 
proved effective. He then swept the caterpillars off the branches 
on to the ground. The caterpillars attempted to ascend the tree 
again, but would not cross the greased band. While thus gathered 
between the bands and the ground they were destroyed in immense 
numbers. To clean twenty-two thousand trees in this way it 
cost seven and one half cents per tree, and the work done in less 
than four weeks. Although the orchard is not thoroughly cleaned, 
Mr. DeLong saved the greater portion of his crop of twenty thousand 
trees for this season. These caterpillars can be effectively exter- 
minated by carefully examining the young wood before the tree is 
leafed out, and picking off and destroying the bunches of eggs, also 
by picking off and destroying any cocoons found on the trees— there 
is often found a leaf folded containing six or seven cocoons. How- 
ever, Mr. DeLong is confident he can exterminate them next season, 
by placing the greased bands on the trees and shaking the young cat- 



24 



CATERPILLARS. 



Fig. 1 




erpillars off the branches, etc., thus preventing them from maturing. 
The moth is the Clisiocampa constricta, Strech. There is another 
species of the Clisiocampa that is spreading at and around Santa Cruz, 
and also in parts of Santa Clara and other counties, and is probably 
the Clisiocampa americana. The moth differs but little in appear- 
ance from the Clisiocampa constricta— the lines on the forewings are 

oblique and are a dirty white color, 
and the apex of the forewings are Fig. is. 
shorter (Fig. 19). The caterpillar 
(Fig. 17) head, black ; frontal mark 
inverted Y, same as Clisiocampa 
constricta; ground color of back and 
sides, apparently brownish black; two dorsal lines, orange, 
space between crinkled black and orange lines, excepting first 
and second segment of thorax, dorsal half orange. Two lateral 
lines, orange, one on each side of stomata, with crinkled yel- 
low lines forming a row of large black spots, one on each 
segment; lower part black, pro-legs reddish brown, and stylets 
and thorax legs black; whole body clothed with soft reddish 
brown hair. On full grown specimens, lateral tuft on thorax i 
rings, whitish. The female lays her eggs on the side of a twig « 
(Fig. 18), not entirely surrounding as Clisiocampa constricta, 
but covers them for protection in the same manner. This species 
makes a tent. This species can be exterminated by picking off and 
destroying the bunches of eggs before the tree leafs out, and by 
picking off and destroying tents, when made; or the latter may be 
burned with their occupants at such hours of the day as the cater- 
pillars are at rest. A torch made of rags, bound upon a pole and 
saturated with kerosene is a useful weapon for this kind of warfare. 
In Santa Cruz County, the caterpillar of the Orgyia leucostigma, or 
the white marked Orgyia or Tussock moth, is effecting considerable 



Fig. 19. 




Fig. 20. 



Fig. 21. 




damage in apple orchards infested by it. The pretty caterpillar 
(Fig. 20) is one and a half inches long, in color light drab, and cov- 
ered with fine silken hair. On each segment ring on the dorsal half 
are four red tubercles; from the outer tubercles on the first thorax 
ring grow tufts of black hair, forming two pencils projecting over the 
head; and from a tuberqle on the eighth abdominal ring also grows 
a tuft of black hair, forming a pencil projecting over the anal append- 
ages. From the inner tubercles on the second and third thorax rings, 
and first and second abdominal rings, grow thick tufts of drab colored 
hair, and join together presenting on these four rings a pretty brush- 
like growth. The head has an inverted Y mark, similar to Clisiocampa 
constricta. The cocoon is made in the crevices of bark, etc., on the 
body and branches of the tree. Pupa of male, elongate, posteriorly 
attenuated, inclosed in a coarse silky cocoon. Pupa of female 



CURRANT BORERS. 



25 



Fig. 22. 



Fig. 23 



(Fig. 21), ovate in shape. The male moth (Fig. 22) has broad wings, 
pectinated antennae. Female (Fig. 23): wingless, eggs generally de- 
posited on outside 
of cocoon. (Fig. 24.) 
This species can 
be exterminated 
by gathering the 
bunches of eggs 
found in the crevi- 




'W 
¥ 




ces of the tree infested the previous season. 

Parasites on Caterpillars. 

Specimens of caterpillar, Clisiocampa constricta, taken from Mr. De 
Long's orchard, about thirty-three per cent, were infested by para- 
sites, principally a Tachina fly (Fig. 16), and some small Ichneumon 
flies. Specimens of both were bred from pupae. From pupae of 
orgyia, a specimen of an Ichneumon fly was bred; if not the Cryptus 
mmcus, closely allied thereto. 



CURRANT BORERS. 

The following description of the JEgeria tipuliforme was written by 
Mr. C. H. Dwinelle of the University of California, 1880, which we 
take the liberty of copying: 

"The currant bushes about Berkeley have for some years suffered 
very much from the attacks of an insect which eats out the pith of 
the main stem and branches. For the purpose of securing the winged 
form of the insect, branches containing chrysalids were a few weeks 
ago taken from the University garden, broken into pieces a few inches 
long and placed in a wide-mouthed bottle, with wire gauze over the 
top. On the twenty-fifth of May several of the insects were found to 
have completed their changes, and to have emerged as moths. They 
were soon identified as of a species but too well known in Europe, 
and imported thence into America, the currant borer {JEgeria tipuli- 
forme.) This pest is worthy of study on its own account, and as a 
member of a notorious family, with which the horticulturists of Cal- 
ifornia may come to have an unpleasant acquaintance. This family 
of moths is peculiar, both in appearance and habits. The JEgerians 
belong to the clear-winged type of moths, having in general wings 
which are almost as transparent as those of a wasp. As they fly dur- 
ing the heat of the day, a casual observer might easily mistake them 
for wasps or closely related insects. 

" The life history of the insect is as follows : The female of the cur- 
rant borer lays her eggs singly on the wood of a year old or over, and 
usually by the side of a bud or branch. When hatched, the young 
larva makes its way into the center of the stem, and taking a down- 
ward course, eats out the pith for a distance of several inches. The 
borer is of a general white color, with a brown head. There are a 
4 



26 CURRANT BORERS. 

few short hairs scattered over the body. Besides six true legs in 
front, there are ten fleshy prop-legs farther back. When full grown 
the borer is nearly half an inch in length and slender in proportion. 
In the Spring, the borers, for the most part, assume the form of a 
shining brown chrysalis, but, as with other borers of this group, 
there is a good deal of irregularity as to the time of making this 
change. At times the insect can be found in all three forms— larva, 
chrysalis, and moth. As the time for the moth to emerge approaches, 
the chrysalis assumes a dark blue tint. It also works its way to the 
opening of the burrow by a squirming motion, aided by rows of 
sharp pointed projections on the abdominal rings. When the moth 
escapes, it frequently leaves the brown shell of the chrysalis sticking 
in the mouth of the burrow." 

Fig. 25. Fig. 26. 





Moth, Grub, and Chrysalis of Currant Borer. 

The illustration of the currant borer, JEgeria tipuliforme, which is 
given on this page, is copied from Packard. The larva and chrysalis 
are very much enlarged. The natural size of the grub, as stated 
above, is not more than half an inch when full grown. 

"The main color of the moth is a very dark blue. There are three 
narrow, golden-yellow rings about the abdomen, as shown in the 
illustration. This golden color is also seen in the collar and on the 
inner sides of the legs, on the sides of the body under the wings, and 
to some extent on the wings themselves. The fore wings have some 
coppery marks, forming a sort of band near their tips, and are fringed 
and veined to a considerable extent with black and blue scales, pre- 
senting a beautiful appearance when examined in the sunshine with 
a glass of moderate power. The wings of the female expand about 
three quarters of an inch, but the male is considerably smaller. At 
the posterior extremity of the body there is an ornamental, feathery 
tuft of blue scales. 

" The mischief done by the borer is shown by the poor crops of cur- 
rants, both as to quantity and quality, and in the death of portions 
or the whole of the plants attacked. If neglected, so that the borers 
become numerous, they will frequently utterly destroy a plantation. 
In our garden, during the recent dry north winds, several large stalks 
showed the borers' work by withering, although they were covered 
with leaves and a moderate crop of fruit. Many twigs which were 
weakened have broken off under the weight of the new leaves. 

" Dr. Harris speaks of instances in Massachusetts where all attempts 
to raise currant bushes from cuttings were baffled during the second 
or third year of growth by the ravages of these insects. Our currant 
raisers should take measures for their suppression before they become 
too numerous. 




CURRANT BORERS. 27 

" The remedy for the currant borer is to cut away and burn all those 
portions of the brush infested, during Winter or early Spring, before 
the insects escape. If a whole neighborhood unites in this action, 
the pest can be practically exterminated in one or two seasons. 

" Among the other members of this family which do great harm, are 
distinct forms which attack respectively the peach and cherry, the 
grape root, the blackberry and raspberry, the maple, the squash vine, 
etc." 

F ™- 27 - m There is also another species of borer that 

infest the currant bushes, and is very destructive 
(S^^^o (Fig. 27), beetle and larva, natural size); this 
v> LUiJU -^ species is probably the Chrysobothris femorata, or 
closely allied to it; it also infests the apple tree. 
The remedies suggested by Mr. Dwindle for the JEgeria tipuliforme 
are applicable to this species as well, and fully indorsed by Mr. W. 
H. Jessup, of Hayward, Alameda County, and Mr. A. T. Hatch, of 
Cordelia, Solano County. 

We think if the trunks of trees, or canes of vines, infested by borers 
(or trees, etc., located near infested trees) were washed with either of 
the sulphur solutions (see Rule 1, page 11) just previous to the sea- 
sons for the deposition of eggs, the insect would not deposit the eggs 
on the part washed. 

Note. — For this purpose we prefer whale oil soap, and sulphur. 

We are informed by an extensive fruit grower that his trees have 
not been infested by borers since he adopted the method of driving 
about six iron nails into the roots of each tree just below the surface 
of the ground. (Any person wishing to investigate this method can 
get address from this office.) 

Among the various kinds of insects injurious to fruit and fruit 
trees, the scale insects, or bark lice {Coccidx), should be the most 
dreaded by fruit growers. Within the last three years a great amount 
of damage has been done to orchard property in several sections of 
this State. 



* The specimen from which Fig. 27 was made had lost its antennae. 



28 SCALE INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREKS. 



SCALE INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT AND OTHER TREES. 



In writing of the different species of scale insects, we have not- 
referred to their natural history, habits, etc., but refer the reader to 
the following paper by Prof. J. Henry Comstock, and to the report of 
Messrs. Chapin and Vestal, page 57: 

[Extract from a paper read by Professor J. Henry Comstock, Entomologist, Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, District of Columbia, at a meeting of the California State Horti- 
cultural Society,°September 24th, 1880.] 

There is no group of insects which is of greater interest to horti- 
culturists to-day than that family which includes the creatures popu- 
larly known as "scale bugs." No variety of fruit is exempt > from 
their attacks, and in certain localities many trees have been seriously 
injured, or even killed outright, by them. The oyster-shell bark 
louse of the apple, and several species infesting citrus fruits, are well 
known examples of these facts. 

Notwithstanding the great importance of the subject, compara- 
tively little thorough work has been done on the species of this 
country. This fact led me to undertake a serious study of the group, 
the result of which will be published as soon as practicable. 

The object of the present paper is simply to give, for the benefit of 
California horticulturists, a few of the more important points in the 
life-history of scale insects, and a part of the results of my studies of 
the forms which occur on this coast. 

The scale insects, or bark lice, comprise the family known to ento- 
mologists as the Coccidse. In many respects this is a very anomalous 
group of insects, differing greatly even from closely allied forms in 
appearance, habits, and developments. 

The newly-hatched scale bug is oval in outline, much flattened, 
furnished with six legs, a pair of antenna?, and an apparatus for suck- 
ing the juices from plants. At this stage of its existence it is very 
small — a mere speck, which the untrained eye could onty with diffi- 
culty detect. By means of a lens, however, they can be seen crawling 
in all directions over the leaves or bark of an infested tree. After 
wandering for a time, the young coccid settles on some part of the 
plant, inserts its beak, and begins its growth at the expense of its 
host. 

From this point the development of certain species is quite strange, 
appearing to be a retrogression instead of an advancement to a more 
highly organized form, as is the rule in the development of most ani- 
mals. The skin it shed, and with it tbs legs and antenna?. The 
coccid thus becomes a degraded, grub-like creature, with no organs 
of locomotion. The mouth parts remain, however, in a highly devel- 
oped state, and well fitted to perform their functions. This apparatus 
is not the least remarkable thing in the structure of these insects. It 
is terminated by a thread-like organ, which is frequently much longer 
than the body of the insect, and is composed of four delicate hair-like 



SCALE INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES. 29 

bristles. By means of this organ the insect is firmly attached to the 
plant, and draws its nourishment therefrom. From this stage the 
development of the sexes differ. 

The female coccid soon moults a second time, and this shed skin is 
joined to that first moulted and forms a covering or scale, under 
which the insect is to pass its life. The moulted skins are. however, 
insufficient to cover the body of the coccid, which increases in size 
rapidly. To supply this deficiency a waxy matter is secreted by the 
insect, and successive additions thus made to the scale. The different 
modes in which these additions are made form some of the characters 
by which the different species of scale insects are most easily dis- 
tinguished. For example: If the waxy matter is added to one side 
of the moults, and successive additions made to the same side, a long 
and more or less narrow scale is formed. The common oyster shell 
bark louse of the apple and the long scale of the orange, well known 
in Florida, are illustrative of this kind of scale insects. If the waxy 
matter be added to all sides of the moults, and successive additions 
are in the form of concentric rings, a circular scale is formed. To 
this group^ belongs the so-called "red scale" of this State, and a 
species which I purpose to call the Cuba scale, which occurs in a 
single grove in Florida, as well as the scale most destructive to fruit 
in the Santa Clara Valley. In each case the scale is nearly circular, 
and the moults appear at a point in the center. Numerous other 
forms of scales occur, but these are sufficient for our present purpose. 

After the female reaches maturity the process of oviposition begins. 
The eggs are laid under the scale, the body of the female gradually 
diminishing in size as the eggs are laid, thus making room for them. 

A word now respecting the development of the male. In the group 
of scale insects which I am now considering, the male scale can be 
distinguished by its small size and the fact that but a single skin is 
moulted in the course of its formation. When the male bark louse 
attains its growth it changes to a pupa with rudimentary legs and 
wing£; later it undergoes another change, and emerges from under 
the scale an active little creature, furnished with long legs and 
antennae, and two large but very delicate wings. Its mouth and its 
appendages have disappeared, and in their place has been developed 
a second pair of eyes. Of course no nourishment can be taken dur- 
ing this stage of its existence, and its energies are devoted solely to 
the perpetuation of its kind. 

A SECOND GROUP OF SCALE INSECTS. 

A second group of scale insects differs from that just described, in 
that the species do not excrete a scale-like covering, composed in part 
of moulted skins, and the females preserve their legs and antennae 
throughout life. The form of the body of the female, however, 
usually changes greatly after impregnation. Of many species of this 
group the males are unknown, but in all the cases where they are 
known, they are winged, as in the first group. The most familiar 
representation of this group are the "black scale," or "brown scale," 
of this coast, and the "soft scale" of Florida. With the black scale, 
after impregnation, the body of the female becomes much thickened 
and elevated, assuming the well known characteristic form. After 



30 SCALE INSECTS. INJURIOUS TO TREES. 

that, the sides and back of the insect become much hardened, and 
the minor part shrinks away from the plant as the eggs are laid. 
Thus there is formed a cup-like shell, or "scale," which covers the 
eo-gs and newlv-hatched young. It should be borne in mind that 
this "scale" is the hardened body of the dead or dying female, and 
not an excretion separate from the body of the insect. This point is 
of practical importance, for it is easier to destroy a naked insect than 
one which is furnished with a water-proof covering like that of the 
scales of the first group. 

A THIRD GROUP OF SCALE BUGS. 

In the third group of scale insects the females change very little 
in form during their entire life, and do not become fixed in one 
place. The males are winged, as in other groups of coccids. The 
mealy bugs, so common in hot-houses, and the cochineal insect, are 
the best known examples of this group. 

SCALE BUGS OCCURRING ON THE PACIFIC COAST. 

These few remarks will give a general idea of the natural history 
of this family of insects. Now, as to the forms which occur on this 
coast: Up to this time I have studied fifteen species which infest 
cultivated plants in sufficient numbers to prove injurious. These 
will be described at length, with others occurring in the East, in a 
report which I am preparing for the Department of Agriculture. 
The most common species of this State is the " black scale," which is 
very abundant on citrus trees and olives, and also infests many other 
plants including the deciduous fruits. This agrees with descriptions 
of a common European species — Lecanium olese — and I presume will 
prove to be the same. If this be true, the species was doubtless 
Drought from Europe on citrus trees. Another very important spe- 
cies is that known as the " red scale." This is as yet un described. I 
have, however, in manuscript, ready for publication, a description, 
including figures of different stages and both sexes. There is abun- 
dant proof that this species was introduced from Australia. These 
two examples are sufficient to show the danger of introducing per- 
nicious pests with exotic plants. The same thing has happened in 
Florida. Although the two species just mentioned do not occur in 
that State, one very closely allied to the " red scale " has been intro- 
duced from Cuba. And another, the most common on orange in that 
State is an European species. All of these insects, however, are not 
foreigners. For example, there is an undescribed scale common on 
olive, pear, fig, and other trees in this State, which I have good reason 
to believe has spread in the cultivated trees from the native willows. 
And in Florida there is a scale which is quite common on citron 
trees and plants, which I believe has spread from the gall berry, an 
indigenous bush very common throughout that State. 

HOW THE SCALE INSECT IS SPREAD. 

A word as to the mode of spreading scale insects. As I have 
already stated, with most species the adult female is firmly attached 



SCALE INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES. 3] 

to the plant upon which she lives ; she is consequently a " stay-at-home 
body." And although the adult males are winged, it is obvious that 
the pests could not be spread by the flight of that sex alone. The newly 
hatched young of both sexes, however, are very active, crawling 
about from one part of an infested tree to another, or even to other 
trees which may be near. It doubtless often happens that these tiny 
creatures are brushed from the trees by persons or vehicles passing, 
and are thus distributed ; or they may crawl upon the feet of birds, 
and thus be carried long distances. But the most common mode by 
which these pests are distributed is by the transportation of trees and 
fruit, infested with living scale insects. 

METHODS OF PREVENTING THE PEST. 

These facts suggest the following methods for preventing the 
occurrence of these nuisances. In planting an orchard choose as 
isolated a spot as is practicable. If isolation cannot be obtained, 
induce your neighbor to join you in efforts to grow clean fruit. Use 
the greatest care in the purchase of trees or importing buds. Before 
planting, thoroughly wash all such trees with an insecticide, even if 
they appear to be clean, for the untrained eye may fail to detect 
early stages of these insects. Do not visit infested orchards unneces- 
sarily, and above all things do not carry home specimens of scale 
bugs as curiosities. Watch your trees carefully, and if one is ever 
found to be infested with scales, remember that no better investment 
can be made than to burn that tree, and that no time is so good for 
doing it as the day it is first found to be infected. The system of 
exchange of fruit boxes is a very dangerous one. Each shipper 
should have his boxes marked and insist on not receiving boxes 
belonging to other shippers. 

REMEDIES FOR EXTERMINATING THE PEST. 

In many cases, however, the pests have gained such a foothold that 
these methods of warfare are impracticable, and a remedy which will 
destroy these insects without injuring the trees, is desirable. I have 
begun a large series of experiments with different substances, hoping 
to find such a remedy. These experiments are as yet incomplete, and 
I will only state, that so far I have found nothing more desirable, 
taking into consideration its value as an insecticide, its effect upon 
the tree, and its cheapness, than a strong solution of w T hale oil soap. 
This I apply with a fountain pump or garden syringe; and, as it is 
impossible, almost, to thoroughly wet every insect by a single appli- 
cation, several are usually necessary. 

Many other substances have been tested, and the results of the 
experiments will be published as soon as practicable. 

I will add, however, that I have seen most excellent results in the 
orchard of V. C. Mason, San Jose, from the use of the following mix- 
ture: One pound of concentrated lye, one pint gasoline, or benzine, 
half pint oil, five gallons water. 

SMUT ON ORANGE TREES AND OLEANDERS. 

Associated with certain coccids, and especially with those which 



32 SCALE INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES. 

do not form a scale-like covering to the body, as has been already 
described, is a black substance covering the leaves and fruit. This 
is very abundant in this State on oleanders, oranges, and other 
plants infested by the black scale, and in Florida on trees infested 
by the mealy bug. It is popularly known as " smut." It is a fungus, 
and has been determined by Prof. Farlow, of Harvard, as Fumago 
salicina, a species which has long been known in Europe on olive 
and orange trees. It is a very serious pest, marring the appearance 
of plants, and in certain sections of this State, where it covers 
oranges, greatly reduces the market value of the fruit. An excellent 
paper on the natural history of this fungus has been published by 
Prof. Farlow, in the " Bulletin of the Bussy Institution of Harvard 
University," in which the following paragraph occurs: "The result 
of our examination of the diseased orange and olive leaves is briefly 
as follows: The disease, although first attracting the eye by the 
presence of a black fungus, is not caused by it, but rather by the 
attack of some insect, which itself deposits some gummy substance 
on the leaf and bark, or so wounds the tree as to cause some sticky 
exudation, on which the fungus especially thrives. It is not denied 
that the growth of the fungus greatly aggravates the trouble already 
existing, by so encasing the leaves as to prevent the action of the 
sunlight. We only say, that in seeking a remedy we are to look fur- 
ther back than the fungus itself — to the insect, or whatever it may 
be, which has made the luxuriant growth of the fungus possible." 

My own observations confirm these conclusions. In fact, before I 
had read Professor Farlow's paper I had learned to consider the 
presence of fungus on the leaves as a sure indication of the presence 
of scale insects. And as I had never been able to find the fungus 
organically connected with plants, but simply growing over the sur- 
face of them near the coccids, and easily removed by rubbing, I sup- 
posed that it grew upon the honey-dew which the insects excreted, 
and which so frequently attract the visit of the ants. This honey- 
dew is doubtless the gummy substance which Professor Farlow 
observed. Professor Farlow suggests, as a means of destroying the 
fungus, the use of alkaline soaps as strong as the trees will bear. If 
our conclusions respecting the fungus be true this remedy will be a 
very effectual one, for it will destroy the scale insects which render 
its presence possible. 

An interesting fact which I have frequently observed, is that where 
there is a luxuriant growth of this fungus it not only feeds upon the 
honey-dew but attacks and destroys the young coccid themselves. 
Thus, in some instances, I have found a large proportion of the 
young coccids on a leaf destroyed in this way, and when the remains 
of the insects were examined with a microscope the fungus was seen 
projecting in great quantities from them. At first thought this would 
seem to be a natural remedy. But I find that it is rare that coccids 
are destroyed except upon the upper surface of the leaves, where the 
fungus is most abundant. This is probably due to the lodging of the 
falling honey-dew chiefly on that surface of the leaves and the con- 
sequent confining, as a rule, of the fungus to that part, and there 
always remains a sufficient number of healthy coccid on the lower 
surface of the leaves to restock the plant. 



SAN JOSE SCALE INSECT. 



33 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE COCCIDiE, 

BY MONS V. SIGNORET, OF PARIS. 

I. Diaspides— Species covered with a scale composed of successive moultings, and of a secre- 
tion forming a shield, or sack, more or less independent of the body of the animal. Nine 
genera are included in this sub-family, but the scales may all be- reduced to two principal types, 
viz.: those with rounded shields, like an oyster shell, with the larval scale in the center; and' 
those with more lengthened shields, in the form of a large comma, or of a large mussel shell, 
and having the larval scale at one end. 

II. Brachyscelides— Species living in gall-like or tube-like excrescences. These insects are, 
so far as known, confined to Australia. 

III. Lecanides — Species either naked or inclosed, or simply covered with waxy, calcareous, 
or filamentous secretions, and in which the female, after fecundation, generally acquires an 
entirely differently form to that which she previously possessed, and becomes fixed. Before 
pregnancy, they have the power to move, if necessary. A number of genera are included in 
this sub-family, some of which approaching in some characters to the Diaspides, have been 
separated by Targioni under the name of Lecanio diaspides. 

IV. Coccides — Species retaining to the end the body form, with all its joints distinct. They 
never become necessarily fixed, and are either naked, or more or less covered with waxy or 
spumous matter, arranged generally in filaments. 



SAN JOSE SCALE INSECT. 



Fig. 28. 



Aspidiotus 2^miciosus, Comstock. — This species of scale insect 
infests the apple, pear, peach, and plum trees, and is to be found on 
the bark, foliage, and fruit. _ It is very prolific, and very destructive. 
(See report of Messrs. Chapin and Vestal,* page 57.) 

Fig. 28. Appearance of a pear infested 
by this species of scale insect. 

Fig. 29. Appearance of a 
branch infested by this species 
of scale insect. 

Fig. 30 represents the matured 
female. The females are wing- 
less, and in their last state de- 
posit their eggs and very soon 
perish — their 
dried - up bodies 
serving as a cov- 
ering to the eggs. 
In speaking of the 
female of the 
Coccidx, W e s t - 
wood says: 

" That, without 

referring to their singular habits, we find some of them, on arriving 
at their last state, are not only wingless, but also footless and anten- 




Fig. SO. 




*We differ in opinion on one minor point of the natural history of this insect, but it is not 
material for the present purpose. 

5 



34 



SANTA CRUZ APPLE AND PEAR SCALE. 



Fig. 32. 



nseless, and in which even all appearance of annulose structure is 
] ost _the creature, in fact, becoming an inert mass of animal matter. 
A slender setae arising from the breast, and thrust into the stem, or 
leaf, or fruit on which the animal is fixed, being the only external 

appendage to the body." ... 

Fig. 31. Male insect 
(perfect), winged. 

Fig. 32. Larva; Fig. 
33, underside of larva. 
Description: Scale,about 
one sixteenth of an inch 
in diameter (scale of 
male insect elongated); 
color, center yellow, 
margin dark mottled 
gray ; eggs, thirty to fifty 
produced by each female; 
color, yellow; 
form, ovate; larva, six legs; two antennae, six jointed; 
two anal seta); body, color yellow; form, oval. Male 
insect (perfect), winged — wings nearly trans- 
parent ; body, color light amber, with dark 
brownish markings; antennae ten-jointed 
hairy), and stylet nearly as long as body. 
Pupa : Figs. 34 and 35. Female (perfect), 
color, light amber yellow (as seen under 
microscope). (Use remedies A, page 43.) 






SANTA CRUZ APPLE AND PEAR SCALE. 



Fig. 38. 



F ig. 36. 



Aspidiotus rapax, Comstock. — This species of scale insects can be 
found in Santa Cruz County, and also in some of 
the southern counties, on the apple and pear trees 
(Fig. 38) and their fruit, but is not considered so 
dangerous as some other species of the genus Aspi- 
diotus. However, if we owned an orchard, there 
absencewould be desirable to us. 

Description of scale and insect: — 
Scale, about one sixteenth of an 
inch in length; form, 
ovoid ; color, drab. 
Larva (see Fig. 36), less 
than one one hun- 
dredths of an inch in 
length ; two antennae, 
six-jointed ; two anal 
setae. Female (Fig. 37). 
(Use remedies A, page 43.) 





Male, winged. 



WHITE SCALE — BLACK SCALE. 



35 



Fig. 37*. 




WHITE SCALE (OR ROSE SCALE). 

Diaspis Rosse (or closely allied to it).— This species can 
be found in many gardens in this State, and has shown 
a tendency to spread on vines in certain districts, espe- 
cially those of the raspberry and blackberry. 

Description of scale and insect:— Scale, one tenth of 
an inch in diameter; form, irregularly round, 
slightly convex (Fig. 372); color, white. Larva, 
"ength, one one hundredth of an inch; color, 
reddish. Eggs, twenty to thirty-five under each 
scale; color, yellowish red. Female (Fig. 37 1). 
Male, winged. (Use remedies B, page 43.) 

To protect the raspberry and blackberry crop 
this pest must be exterminated. 



Fig. 37|. 




BLACK SCALE. 

Lecanium Olese. — This species of Lecanium is more generally found 
in the orchards and gardens of this State than any other species of 
the Coccidse. It can be found upon nearly every species of the 
deciduous fruit trees, and every species of the citrus trees, and also 
upon many species of ornamental trees and shrubs, and is very 
prolific. 

The foliage and fruit of trees infested by the black scale, Lecanium 
Olese, are also infected by a black substance, said to be a fungus 
growth, which is generally formed on the upper part of the leaves 
and fruit as they hang upon the branches. It is claimed by some 
persons that this scale exudes a honey or dew, which falls upon the 
fruit and foliage, and coming in contact with matter in the air forms 
a fungus growth. Others claim that the attack or bite, made by the 
insects on the branches and leaves, causes the leaves to exude a 
honey or dew, which coming in contact with matter in the air, 
creates a fungas growth. However, it is generally conceded that 
this black matter is in some manner caused by the presence of this 
black scale insect. It certainly injures the tree by preventing free 
respiration, and injures the sale of citrus fruits, on 
which it is found. It is also injurious to deciduous 
fruits for canning purposes. 

Fig. 41, 
Fig. 40. 




Fir;. 42. 





Fig. 43. 




36 



BROAD SCALE OR SOFT ORANGE SCALE. 



Description : Scale, (Fig. 39) length, from one eighth of an inch 
to one fifth of an inch ; form, ovoid; color, at first formation, green- 
ish brown; when half grown, reddish brown; and at maturity, black. 
Eggs, from seventy-five to one hundred and twenty-five under each 
scale'; color, when first formed, whitish ; before hatching, a reddish 
yellow. Larva, (Fig. 40) length, one ninetieth of an inch; color, 
pale reddish yellow. Form, ovoid. Antennas (Figs. 40 and 41), 
seven jointed, indentation on posterior end; two anal setae on poste- 
rior angles of indentation, and two at inner angles of indentation. 
(Use remedies C, page 44.) 

Xote.— The black scale on the olive, peach, apricot, citrus trees, and garden plants, resemble 
each other in appearance to the unaided eye, but on examination of larvse under a microscope, 
they differ somewhat in description. Fig. 40, larva of Lecanium on peach tree. Fig. 41, larva 
of Lecanium on garden plant and elm. Fig. 42, setae at inner angle of indentation of Fig. 41, 
the larva of Lecanium on elm and locust resemble closely the larva of cottony grape scale, 
Lecanium acericola, etc. (Fig. 57). Fig. 43 shows what appears to be an intestine in larvae of 
scale insects, each species having a different form, and shows the form in some species (not 
illustrated in these pages), especially of Lecanium. We hope, in a short time, to be able tc- 
describe this portion of the insect's anatomy. 



BROAD SCALE OR SOFT ORANGE SCALE. 



Lecai 
a rgest 



Fig. 44. 



lium Hesperidum, Linn. — This scale (Fig. 44) is one of the 
of the genus Lecanium that is found on fruit trees. Its food 
plants are principally citrus trees, 
and it can be found on the young 
growth, leaves, and fruit of trees in- 
fested. A few species of deciduous 
7j and ornamental trees are also infested 
' by it. 

Description of scale and insect: — 
Scale, ovoid, a little wider at one end 
than the other; length from one 
twelfth to one seventh of an inch; 
color, dark brown on convex part, 
and a lighter brown surrounding 
margin ; it has two indentations on 
each side, and one on posterior end • 
eggs, from seventy-five to one hun- 
dred and twenty-five under each scale. 
Larva: Length, about one nineteenth 
part of an inch; color, yellowish, 
slightly mottled ; seven-jointed anten- 
nae; two anal setae as long as body. 
The viscera can be readily seen 
through the scale while maturing ; 
color of viscera, yellowish red ; male, 
w r inged. (Use remedies C, page 44.) 




OYSTER SHELL BARK LOUSE— ASPIDIOTUS CITRICOLA. 



37 




OYSTER SHELL BARK LOUSE, OR COMMON APPLE SCALE. 

Aspidiotus conchiformis, Gmelin; Mytalaspis pomicorticis, Riley— 

Description of Fig. 45 : 1. Egg; 2. Young insect (larva) ; 3. Appear- 

Fl 45 ance of secretion 

as it hardens and 
forms shell over 
body of insect ; 4. 
A form of the scale 
before it reaches 
maturity ; 5 and 
6. Appearance of 
insect after cast- 
ing skin, limbs, 
1 and other append- 
ages; 7. Scales 
(cover) at maturi- 
ty ; 8. Antennae. 
All of these figures 
highly magnified. Description of insect, etc.: Eggs, number under 
each scale thirty to seventy-five; length, one one hundredth of an 
inch; form, irregularly ovoid; Fig. 46. 

color, snow white, when near 
hatching, yellowish. Larva: 
Length of body, one one hun- 
dredth of an inch ; form, ovoid; 
three times as long as wide ; color, 
pale yellow. Antennae, sometimes six-jointed, but generally seven- 
jointed. Anal setae, two, about two thirds as long as body. Male 
insect (perfect) : Length, one forty-fifth of an inch ; color, flesh 
colored gray; abdomen and thorax, about same length as seen from 
above; wings, nearly transparent. "The last joint of abdomen nar- 
rowed into a large tubercle bearing four bristles on the under side, 
and sending forth the genital armor in the form of an awl-shaped 
stylet as long as abdomen." This scale (Fig. 46) can be found on 
nearly all deciduous fruit trees in districts infested. (Use remedies 
A, page 43.) 




ASPIDIOTUS CITRICOLA. 



Fig. 47 



of seal 
formis 



e in 
wil 



On Tuesday, September 20, 1881, there was 
received in this city (Sacramento)^ a shipment of 
oranges and lemons from Australia, which were 
infested by scale insects — the oranges appar- 
ently by Aspidiotus aurantii, or red scale; the 
lemons' by Aspidiotus citricola. Fig. 47 : (a) male 
insect; (6) female, or larva; (c) scata The in- 
sects are apparently in a healthy condition. An 
additional pest may be added to the catalogue 
sects by this shipment. Description of Aspidiotus conchi- 
[ be sufficient for this scale for present purposes. 




3S 



COTTONY CUSHION SCALE — RED SCALE. 



Fig. 48. 



Fig. 49. 



COTTONY CUSHION SCALE. 

Iceryia imrcliasi, Maskell — This species of scale i insect has 
infested an orchard in Santa Barbara County to a serious extent, 
and can be found on the orange, lemon, fig, and apple trees. If 
allowed to spread from the locations already reported, we have no 
hesitation in stating that it can only be exterminated at an immense 
outlay of labor and money. We are informed that this species of 
scales is to be found in a garden in Los Angeles, and that it has done 
some damage to ornamental trees at San Rafael, in Marin County. 
Our opportunities for investigating the natural history of this insect 
have been limited ; but, from what we have learned of its habits, etc., 
we advise that whenever this pest appears it shall be exterminated 
regardless of cost. 

Description: Fig. 48, natural size; length, about one 
half of an inch; greatest anterior width, about one fifth 
of an inch, narrowing gradually posteriorly; the anterior 
end is of a denser color (Fig. 48), and repre- 
sents the matured insect (or larva); the rest 
of the body of Fig. 48 is composed of a cottony excres- 
sence of a yellowish white color and marked with lon- 
gitudinal corrugated bars, giving the insect somewhat 
the appearance of a beetle, as seen on the tree; in the 
cavity of the cottony mass are deposited the eggs, from 
two hundred to five hundred in number; color, pale red ; 
form, elongated ovoid. Larva: (Fig. 49) length, one 

twenty-fifth of an inch; body, red; long bristling hair 
growing from posterior edge ; two antennae, color, 
black; six-jointed; (apex) clubbed, with 
long hairs growing on club-joint; six legs, 
color black, and spined. Larva matured : 
(Fig. 50) Nearly one fourth of an inch in 
diameter; ground color, reddish brown with 
yellow and white cottony markings, with 
long hairs extended. For general appear- 
ance of insect at maturity, see Fig. 48; and 
for larva at maturity, see Fig. 50. Fig. 51 
represents this pest on a branch. This insect is accom- 
panied by smut on the branches and foliage, as described 
in the article on black scale. Male, winged ; color, body 
red; long antennae; wings, color, light brown. (Use 
remedies D, page 44.) 




Fig. 50. 




Fig. 51. 




RED SCALE, LOS ANGELES. 

Aspidiotus aurantii, Maskell — This species of aspidiotus has infested 
several citrus orchards in one district of Los Angeles County to a 
serious extent. It has been claimed by residents of other districts of 
the county, that it is only to be found in the locality referred to, but 
such is not the case; we have found it in some other districts of the 
county, though not to any serious extent as yet. It has lately been 
found at Marysville, Yuba County, on a few trees. Only the strictest 



SCALES FOUND ON ELM AND LOCUST TREES, ETC. 



Fig. 52. 



Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 




Fig. 55. 




attention to quarantine rules and regulations will keep it from 

spreading to every citrus orchard in this State. 
Description of scale 

and insect: — Scale, ma- 
tured, one twelfth of 

an inch in diameter (in 

a few cases it exceeds 

this); color, center 

yellow, margin light 

brown; eggs, from 

twenty to forty under each scale; 

form, ovoid; color, bright yellow. 

Larva: Length, one hundredth of an 

inch ; form, ovoid ; color, bright yel- 
low; antennae, six 
jointed. Female 
insect, color, yel- 
low (see Fig. 52). 
Male insect (per- 
fect), winged (Fig. 
53), about one 

forty-fifth of an inch in length ; wings 
clear, nearly transparent; color of 
body, amber yellow with slight dark 
markings; anal stylet appendage 
nearly as long as body. 

It feeds upon the foliage (Fig. 54), 
and fruit (Fig. 55), covering the fruit 
to such an extent as to unfit it for 
sale in the market. (Use remedies 
D, page 44.) 





Fig. 56. 



SCALES FOUND ON ELM AND LOCUST TREES, ETC. 

We have found that the elm trees (especially the cork elm) and 
locust trees, in the City Hall Park, in Stockton, and also 
many shade trees on the streets, are infested by a large 
scale (Lecanium). It is also reported that some orchards 
on the islands below Stockton are infested by scales. 
Those who own fruit trees cannot be too particular in 
watching for scale insects, as a great deal of the damage 
done by them can be attributed to their introduction on 
ornamental trees. The authorities of the City of Stock- 
ton, or the Supervisors of San Joaquin County, should 
attend to the matter of abating the nuisance. 

Description of insect and scale: Scale (Fig. 56), one 
eight to three sixteenths of an inch in length ; form, oval ; 
color, brownish black; eggs, from two hundred to three 
hundred under each scale; color, yellowish white. Larva, 
one ninetieth of an inch in length; scalelike; form, 
elongate ovoid ; antennae, seven-jointed. (See Fig. 40. Use reme- 
dies A, page 43.) 




40 



COTTONY GRAPE SCALE — MEALY BUG. 



COTTONY GRAPE SCALE. 



Fig. 



This scale is of the genus Lecanium, closely allied to the Lecanium 

maclurae, or Lecanium acericola, or maple leaf scale. This scale is 

found on several vines in 
Santa Barbara County. The 
scale proper is about one 
eighth of an inch in diam- 
eter, of a bluish color. It 
produces a cotton}'' cover for 
its eggs and young. The eggs 
s?>s are white and scale-like, 
about one ninetieth of an 
inch in length ; form, ovoid; 
has much the appearance of 
the young of other species of 
the Lecanium; color, whitish 
3 T ellow; two antennae and 
anal stylets. Only one vine- 
yard has been reported thus 
far, but it is found in several 
arbors in the town of Santa 
Barbara. (Fig. 57.) 

We have specimens of 
this species of scale insect 
on grapevine prunings in 
our office, found in a garden 
at Sacramento. (Use reme- 
dies D, page 44.) 




MEALY BUG. 



Fig. 58. 



Dactylopius adonidum, Linn. — This species of the genus Coccides 
may be said to be a universal pest of the hothouse. It is also found 
in the gardens, nurseries, and citrus groves. 

Description : Male insect, similar in appearance to Fig. 60 (except- 
ing form of abdomen); he has two long filaments 
protruding from anal segment rings, instead of the 
anal stylet in some other species described in this 
work; length of insect, from one twentieth to one 
twenty-fifth of an inch; wings, nearly transparent; 
color of body, brownish yellow. Female, full grown 
(Fig. 58): length, about one seventh of an inch; 
color, yellowish white; two antennae; two anal setae, 
nearly half length of body; a fine, mealy-like sub- 
stance covers the body, hence the name. Larva, 
when hatched, about one fiftieth of an inch in 
length ; color, yellowish white. Eggs deposited on 
leaves, etc., and covered by a cotton-like substance. 
This pest is very prolific, and brings forth its young, or broods, at 




SCALE INSECT ON THE NORFOLK ISLAND PINE. 



41 



all seasons of the year. Remedies which destroy other species of 
scale insect have no effect on the mealy bug. However, the danger 
of its spreading is such that it should be exterminated wherever 
found, regardless of cost. 

Remedies : Mr. Ashmead writes : " The usual methods seem to 
have no effect. I would, therefore, recommend kerosene, diluted 
with three parts of water? This should be syringed over the plants 
infested. Great care should be taken to shake the wash well before 
applying it, for unless this is done the oil will rise to the top of the 
water, and wherever pure kerosene is ejected upon the tree the leaves 
and twigs are sure to die." 

To obviate the trouble of shaking, etc. of the wash recommended 
by Mr. Ashmead, we recommend one quart of kerosene mixed with 
three fourths of a pint of any animal oil.* In three quarts of water, 
dissolve three fourths of an ounce of borax. Then mix all together, 
and a solution will be produced, thoroughly mixed and ready for 
use. 



SCALE INSECT ON THE NORFOLK ISLAND PINE. 



Fig. 60. 



Uhleria araucarise, Comstock. — This species of scale insect is only 
found on the Norfolk Island pine (specimens from Santa Barbara). 
Description: Scale, one 
Fig. 59. sixteenth of an inch in diam- 

eter ; form, irregularly round; 
f j, y ;\y color, white. Larva (Fig. 59), 
?&3§f length about one one hun- 
JjgfM dredthofaninch; color, light 
^**~ amber: two antennae; two 
long anal setse — appears to be 
covered with very fine,armor- 
like plates or scales. Female 
— color, yellow. Male — color, 
dark brown ; wings nearly 
transparent ; antennae ten 
jointed; two long filaments protruding from anal segments, instead 
of the anal stylet in some species described in this work. (Use reme- 
dies B, page 43.) 





CURRANT BUSHES AND GRAPEVINES INFESTED BY SCALE INSECTS. 

A species of scale insect of the genus Aspidiotus is found on the 
currant bush, and also on the grapevine; by use of remedies B, 
page 43, the pests can be destroyed. 



* Neats foot oil, lard oil, or whale oil. 

6 



42 ORNAMENTAL TREES INFESTED BY SCALE INSECTS. 



We find in various sections of the State, that many varieties of 
trees and plants, such as the acacia, bay tree, manzanita, oleander, 
willow, osage orange, etc., are infested by scale insects, and nearly all 
belonging to the genus Aspidiotus. All sutm trees infested by scale 
insects should be thoroughly cleansed, by washing or spraying, as 
soon as the scale insects appear on them. 

Remedies. 

For large trees, use remedies B. (Page 43.) 

For plants or shrubs, etc., use remedies D. (Page 44). 



LYE MADE PROM WOOD ASHES. 

It is generally estimated that one bushel of good wood ashes will 
produce five pounds of potash. We are informed by Mr. and Mrs. 
Roberts, of San Bernardino (old), San Bernardino County, that the 
ashes of cottonwood produce more potash than any other kind of 
wood ashes. In making washes for trees from wood ashes, we think 
it would be safe to estimate five pounds of potash per bushel of good 
ashes, if thoroughly leached. 



fighting the black scale. — Lecanium olex. 

Fllwood, the residence of Ellwood Cooper, Esq., is situated about 
fourteen miles north of Santa Barbara, in Santa Barbara County. 
This tract of land contains very fine orchards of almond, walnut, 
and olive trees. The olive trees became infested with the black scale, 
Lecanium olex, and Mr. Cooper saw at once that if they were allowed 
to remain on the trees, making a choice oil would be impossible, so 
he began the work of extermination, and carried it on zealously 
until he was rewarded by complete success. In one small orchard, 
containing about one hundred trees, he cut off the limbs and washed 
the trunks thoroughly with a solution of whale oil soap. The bal- 
ance of the three thousand five hundred bearing trees he washed 
with a decoction of tobacco, and in some instances, when necessary, 
he swabbed the part with pyrolyneous acid. Some of the trees were 
simply washed with whale oil soapsuds. 

Mr. Cooper grows tobacco for this purpose, at a cost of one and one 
half to two cents per pound. Thirty pounds will wash one hundred 
trees. Mr. Cooper applied the wash at a temperature of one hundred 
and thirty degrees Fahrenheit, and found that it did not injure the 
foliage or blossoms. Let those who doubt that the black scales can 
be exterminated, examine the olive groves at Ellwood before they 
become grounded in opinion. 



GENERAL REMEDIES. 43 



GENERAL REMEDIES, 



Remedies for cleaning _ Apple and Pear Trees infested by Scale Insects, 
Aspidiotus perniciosus, etc. A. rapax and A. conchiformis. 

Make a solution of one pound of commercial concentrated lye, or 
one and a third pounds of commercial potash to each one and a 
half gallons of water. (See ash lye, page 42). The lye or potash should 
be melted or dissolved in boiling water. Before pruning the*trees, 
wash or spray them thoroughly with a solution, proportions as 
above, and if possible at a temperature of one hundred and thirty 
degrees Fahrenheit. 

The limbs and branches should be thinned out sufficient to give 
free access of light and air to the foliage, etc., on all parts of the trees. 
The prunings should be burned, immediately after being taken off 
the trees. After pruning, providing the trees are not in bloom, wash 
or spray the trees with a solution, of one pound of commercial con- 
centrated lye, and one and a third pounds of commercial potash to 
each two and a half gallons of water. (See ash lye, page 42.) 

If the trees are in bloom, wash or spray with either of the sulphur 
solutions recommended in Rule 1, page 11. 

If a Summer washing is necessary, use either sulphur solution. 
See Rule 1, page 11 ; it will not injure the foliage or fruit. 

Note. — If apple or pear trees are very badly infested, the solution may be used : one pound 
of concentrated lye, or one and a third pounds of commercial potash to each one gallon of 
water. 

Satisfactory results will depend upon the manner in which the 
washing or spraying is done. 



B. 

Remedies for cleaning Peach, Plum, and other varieties of Trees pro- 
ducing stoned fruit, infested by Scale Insects. Aspidiotus perniciosus, 
A. rapax and A. conchiformis. 

Make a solution of one pound of commercial concentracted lye, or 
one and a third pounds of commercial potash to each two gallons of 
water. Wash or spray thoroughly with this solution before pruning. 
For second washing, if before the trees bloom, use same amount of 
lye or potash to three gallons of water. If in bloom, or bearing 
fruit, use sulphur washes recommended in Rule 1, page 11. If the 
trees are only infested by black scale, Lecanium olese ; see article 
" Ell wood," page 43, or use treatment C, page 44. 



44 GENERAL REMEDIES. 



c. 

Remedies for cleaning Olive, Peach, Plum, and other deciduous and orna- 
mental Trees and Plants infested by Black Scale, Lecanium olese, and 
Soft Orange Sccde, Lecanium hesperidum. 

One pound of commercial concentrated lye, or one and one third 
pound of commercial potash, dissolved in two gallons of water. 
Wash or spray with a solution of the above proportions before prun- 
ing. After pruning and before the tree puts forth the fruit blossoms, 
wash or spray with a solution, containing same amount of concen- 
trated lye or potash as above, dissolved in three gallons of water. If 
a third washing is required during the Summer, use either of the 
sulphur mixtures recommended in Rule 1, page 11. 

For cleaning citrus trees of black scale or soft orange scale, use 
remedies D, page 44. 



D. 

Remedies for cleaning Citrus Trees infested by Aspidiotus aurantii, Leca- 
nium olese, Lecanium hesperidum, Diaspis rosese, and Fumage solicina 
(i. e. smut). 

To procure the aid of nature to assist in exterminating the scale 
insects, smut, etc., infesting citrus trees, should be the ambition of 
every citrus-grower. 

First — At a season of the year before the trees bloom, make a 
solution of one pound of Commercial concentrated lye to three gal- 
lons of water, and thoroughly wash or spray all the foliage of the 
tree. If practicable the washes should be applied at a temperature 
of 130° Fahrenheit. 

Second — After using this wash as directed, thin out the branches by 
pruning, so that the air and light may have free access to the foliage 
and fruit on the tree. The branches left on the tree should not be 
allowed to reach near the ground. 

Note. — We have examined leaves of orange trees sent us by Mr. A. B. Chapman, of San 
Gabriel, Los Angeles County. Mr. C. has made strenuous efforts to destroy the red scale by 
washing, etc. On sixty-three leaves examined, seventy-one per cent, of the scale insects were 
destroyed on the upper side of the leaves, and thirty-seven per cent, on the under side of the 
leaves. The density of the foliage on the trees prevented the washing from being more effective. 

Third — All prunings and foliage taken from the trees should be 
destroyed as soon as possible, then repeat the washing or spraying as 
above. 

Fourth — About three weeks after pruning, or as soon as the larva 
of the insect appears, wash or spray with either of the sulphur solu- 
tions recommended in Rule 1, page 11. 

Fifth — The fourth washing may not be necessary ; if it should be, 
repeat No. 3, as it will not injure the foliage or the young fruit. Mr. 
G. M. Holmes of Orlando, Florida, writes that for the destruction of 
a scale insect, Chrysomphalus ficus (similar to the Red Scale), he had 
"been most successful in the use of a strong brine of salt and water 



GENERAL REMEDIES. 45 

applied twice, at intervals of two weeks. It is heroic treatment, and 
takes the leaves off, but the scale comes with them, and if done just 
prior to a growing season, they soon send out a luxuriant new growth 
and seem more healthy than before. I think if potash were mixed 
with salt and water it would be an improvement, and I am going to 
use it in that way." 

Sixth — The solution recommended will clear the foliage, fruit, and 
branches, of scale insects, smut etc., if properly applied. 

Seventh — The foliage should be thoroughly saturated in the first 
washing, so to remove the smut. 

Eighth — For immediate extermination of the red scale, A. aurantii, 
on citrus trees, we think if the foliage is thoroughly washed or 
sprayed with a strong brine of salt and water, to which add one 
pound of concentrated lye to each three gallons of brine, and, if 
necessary, repeat the washing as directed by Mr. Holmes. It will 
take off all the foliage and scale, which should be carefully gathered 
and destroyed by burning. This is certainly worth trying. An 
orchard can be cleaned in this way by operating on the trees most 
exposed to the winds, etc. It is preferable to the method of cutting 
away all limbs of the tree above the crotch, as practiced by some 
growers. 

COTTONY CUSHION SCALE. 

Iceryia p>urchasi, Maskell — Use same remedies (D) as for red scale, 
Aspidiotus aurantii, Maskell, on citrus trees. -(Page 44.) 



WHITE SCALE ON RASPBERRY VINES, ETC. 

Diaspis rosse — Use same remedies (D) as for red scale, Aspidiotis 
aurantii, on citrus trees. (Page 44.) 



OLIVE TREES. 



For black scale, Lecanium olese—XJse same remedies (C) as for peach, 
plum, etc. (page 44), or see article " Ellwood." (Page 42.) 



ORNAMENTAL TREES IN GARDENS. 

Use same remedies (D) as for red scale, Aspidiotus aurantii, on 
citrus trees. (Page 44.) 

ELM TREES, ETC. 

Use same remedies as for apple and pear (A), Aspidiotus perniciosus, 
etc. (Page 43.) 

COTTONY GRAPE SCALE. 

L. arcericole, etc.— Use same remedies (D) as for red scale, Aspidiotus 
aurantii, Maskell, on citrus. (Page 44.) 



46 



GENERAL REMEDIES. 



Fig. 61. 



PUMPS FOR WASHING TREES. 

Experience has taught us that the most effective remedies for the 
extermination of insects injurious to fruit and fruit 
trees, especially those belonging to the Cocciclse, are 
those that can be applied in solution. For the applica- 
tion of such solutions the best method is by a pump 
and spray nozzle. We have been frequently asked what 
kind of pump, nozzle, etc., is the best. The following 
illustrations represent the best apparatus we know of 

at present. Fig. 61 repre- 
sents a fountain pump ; the 
end of the hose is placed in 
a barrel or pail containing 
the fluid; price, $7 50. 

Fig. 62 represents a force 
pump, which can be placed 
on the top of a barrel, and is 
capable of throwing a spray 
over any ordinary fruit tree ; 
price, §17. 

Fig. 64. 
B 



Fig. 65. 




Fig. 63 represents a nozzle, man- 
ufactured at San Jose, which we 
will call the San Jose nozzle. A is 
a diaphragm with a small opening 
in center of any required size. This 
is placed on the piece B, on top of 
screw; the cap, C, is then screwed 
on, and the nozzle is complete. 
With a force pump this throws a 
very fine spray over the tree. A 
full set of diaphragms are sent with 
each nozzle. 

Fig. 64 is known as the Niagara 
lawn sprinkler, and is manufac- 
tured at Sacramento. Through the 
concave cone, A, is placed a rod, C, 
with screw thread cut on top. On 
this is placed an inverted cone, B, 
by which the spray can be regulated 
to any desired quantity, as shown 
in Fig. 65. Either of the above 
nozzles placed on a hose, or pipe, 
attached to a pump, will work eco- 
nomically. 




GENERAL REMEDIES. 47 

Mr. D. C. Vestal, of San Jose, states that one hundred of his pear 
trees, nearly twenty years planted, can be washed each day by pump 
and nozzle. 

Last Winter we made some experiments, by applying the solution 
to the trees by means of a jet of steam and a syphon pump, which 
gave very good results. Where a large orchard is to be cleaned, we 
think the steam, either by syphon pump or by pressure, is the cheap- 
est and best, as the wash can be applied at any temperature required^ 
and any reasonable number of hose can be attached for expedition of 
the work. 



48 NATURAL REMEDIES. 



NATURAL REMEDIES, 



Lady-birds, or Lady-bugs {Coccinellidse).— The "lady-birds" are 
better known, perhaps, than any other family of beetles. They are 
small, round, and hemispherical, usually red, yellow, or black, with 
spots of one or the other of these colors. All are carnivorous, 
except Epilachna. The eggs are usually long, yellow, and oval, and 
are laid in patches, often in the midst of a group of plant-lice, 
which the newly-hatched larvae greedily devour. The larvae are 
long, soft-bodied, rather pointed toward the end, and are quite active. 
The jaws are small and inconspicuous. They are often quite gaily 
colored, and covered with scattered tubercles, spines, or tufts of hair. 
They attain their full growth in three or four weeks. When about 
to transfrom to pupae they attach themselves by the end of the body 
to a leaf or twig, and either throw off the old larva skin, which 
remains around the tail, or retain it around the pupa for protection. 
The pupa is small and rounded, simulating the true beetle. The 
perfect insect comes forth in about a week. The larvae feed upon 
plant-lice and ^ther small insects, of which they destroy immense 
numbers. The adult beetles also destroy other insects, although in 
lesser numbers than the larvae. Quite a number of species of the 
lady-birds are found in the orchards doing good work, a few of the 
most common of which we figure and briefly describe. 

Coccinella novemnotata, Herbst (Fig. 67), is light yel- 
lowish red in color, and may at once be distinguished 
by the nine black spots upon its wing-covers, arranged 
as shown in the figure, four upon each wing-cover, the 
two hind ones being the larger, and one in front on the 
middle line. Coccinella munda is a smaller species of 
precisely the same color, but without any spots upon 
the wing-cover. Its thorax is black, with two small 
light spots. Hippodamia, convergent resembles the 
preceding in general ground color. It is larger and more elongated. 
On the wing-covers are thirteen small black spots. The thorax 
is black, with a light yellow margin, and two lines of the 
same color approaching a V in shape. Hippodamia maculata 
(Fig. 66) is pink in color, with ten large black spots on the 
\\ wing-covers, of which two are upon the middle line. The 
[ thorax is pink, with two large black spots, and the head is 
^ pink, with black eyes. It is smaller than the last named 
species. Coccinella venusta is larger and broader. It is pink in color, 
with ten large black spots upon the wing-covers, of which the hind 
two blend into each other across the middle line. The inner middle 
spots are shaped like inverted commas. The thorax is pink, with # 
four black spots, of which the two hinder ones meet across the 
middle line to form a V. Chilocorus bivulnerus, Muls. (the twice 
stabbed lady-bird), is hemispherical in form, and shiny black in 
color. A little in front of the middle of each wing-cover is an irreg- 





NATURAL REMEDIES. 



49 



Fig. 68.. 



ular bright red spot. The thorax is black, with a whitish border, and 
the head is whitish, with black eyes. 

We describe the only vegetable-feeding lady-bird in order that those 
interested may know what it is, and not consider it a beneficial 
species. It is known as Epilachna borealis, Thunberg. It is much 
larger than any before mentioned, is of a light reddish yellow color, 
with seven large black spots upon each wing cover. The thorax is 
of the same color, and has four small black spots. The head is con- 
colorous with the thorax, and the eyes are black. Both the larvae 
and perfect insects feed upon the leaves of cucumbers, melons, 
squashes, and pumpkins— eat unsightly holes in them, and, when 
numerous, completely destroy the plant. Another beetle, of injuri- 
ous proclivities, is often mistaken for a lady-bird by the planters, 
although it belongs to an entirely different family. This is the 
twelve-spotted Diabrotica, Diabrotica duodecim-punctata, 
Fabr. This insect is shown in Fig. 68, and certainly 
does resemble Coccinella to the untrained eye. The 
principal points of difference between it and the com- 
mon Hippodamias, which it most resembles, are that the 
Diabrotica is usually greenish, varying occasionally to 
yellowish, that it has twelve black spots arranged in parallel rows 
down the wing covers, and that the thorax is green and unspotted. 
The twelve-spotted Diabrotica belongs to the family Chrysomelidse, or 
leafeating beetles. Dr. Packard states that they devour the leaves of 
dahlias, and they are commonly found gnawing melons, squashes, 
and cucumbers. (U. S. Agricultural Reports, 1879.) 

Diabrotica vitata (Fig. 69) is also destructive to plants. 
Aphis lions, Chrysopa. — The aphis lions are the larvae 
of the "golden-eyed lace-wing flies" — insects with slen- 
der bodies and extremely delicate, gauze-like wings. 
Their color is 

usually green, FlG - 70 ' 

and their eyes golden (repre- 
sented in all stages, Figs. 70 
and 71). Upon being disturbed 
they emit a disagreeable, fetid 
odor. Their eggs are white and are supported by long foot- 




FiCx. 69. 



Fig. 71, 




Fig. 72. 



stalks, as shown in the figure, usually upon plants infested 
with plant-lice. The larvae are active and extremely vora- 
cious. There are two or more broods in the course of the Summer, 
and the last brood winters in the chrysalis state, protected by a com- 
pact, round, whitish cocoon. 

Spined tree bug. Podisis {Arma) jspinosus, (Fig. 72.)— 
A brownish or grayish plant bug, nearly the color of tree 
bark— several specimens have been brought to our office 
by parties finding them on their trees, thinking they 
were injurious to fruit, etc. This insect injures the leaves 
of apple and other trees by sucking the sap. However, it 
is reputed to be very destructive to the larvae of the Colo- 
rado potato beetle and gooseberry saw-fly. It may be more of a friend 
than enemy of the fruit grower. 




50 



APHID.E. 



APHID£. 



Aphidse—(Fig. 73 and explanation.) This family of insects (plant- 
lice) are perhaps the greatest enemies of the vegetable world. 
Nearly three hundred species are described. It was formerly a great 



Fig. 73. 




puzzle to understand, or to account for, the rapid increase of the 
plant-lice, and the question has been carefully entertained by some of 
the most distinguished naturalists and physiologists of the world. 
Kaltenbach and Professor Huxley, who have paid considerable atten- 
tion to their history, bear out Reaumer's assertion of the infinite 
and almost incredible powers of multiplication possessed by these 
feeble looking plant-lice. That author calculates that a single aphis 
may, in five generations, be the progenitor of nearly six millions of 
descendants. 

These insects can be found on almost every species of fruit trees, 
etc., especially on the foliage and young growth. Packard names 
them as follows: 

Aphis rosea — Found in the rose. 

Aphis mali; Aphis malifilias — Found on the apple. 

Aphis cerasi — Found on the cherry. 

Aphis per sicae — Found on the peach, etc. 

Either of the above species can be destroyed by spraying or wash- 
ing the under side of leaves infested, with either of the sulphur 
washes recommended in Rule 1, page 11, with this exception: one 
pound of either soap should be mixed in one and one half or two 
gallons of water. Spraying or washing with a decoction of tobacco 
will destroy them. 

Woolly aphis, or apple tree aphis, Figuier calls Myzoxyle mali. 
"This insect is of a dark russet brown color, with the upper part of 
the abdomen covered with very long white down. This species of 
aphis, according to M. Blot, can only exist on that tree. Carried 



APHID.E. 



51 



away and placed on another, it very soon perishes. It does not attack 
the blossom, the fruit, nor the leaves, but fixes itself on the lower part 
of the trunk, whence it propagates itself downwards as far as the 
roots, underneath the graftings, etc. It also likes to lodge in the 
cracks of the trunk and large branches; but it generally looks out 
for a southern, and avoids a northern aspect. It is not active, walks 
very little, and its dissemination from one place to another can only 
be explained by the facility with which so small an insect can be 
transported by the wind, its lightness being still increased by the 
down which covers it." 

" The Myzoxyli mail renders the wood knotty, dry, hard, brittle, and 
brings on rapidly all the symptoms which characterize old age and 
decay in trees attacked." 

We have visited orchards this season which are terribly infested 
by this pest. 

Remedies Recommended. 



Fig. r. 



M. Blot, for preserving the apple trees from this pest (woolly 
aphis), says: "Employ for the seed-beds the pips of bitter apples 
only ; give to the nursery and to the plants only as much shelter as 
absolutely necessary; avoid those sites which are low and damp; 
encourage the circulation of air and the desiccation of the soil ; sur- 
round the foot of each apple tree with a mixture of soot, or of tobacco ■ 
and fine sand." 

We think if the tree is thor- 
roughly sprayed with a solu- 
tion of one pound of concen- 
trated lye to one gallon of 
water, that on repetition of 
the washing or spraying with 
either of the sulphur washes 
recommended in Rule 1, page 
11, this pest can be extermin- 
ated, or by applying coal oil 
mixture. (See article on Mealy 
Bug, page 40.) 

These insects occur some- 
times in great abundance, 
forming in the Fall season 

Apple Root Plant Louse, Eriosoma (Pamphijics) pyri— gall-like potatoes, tWO to three 
Fitch, a, the gall; b, larva; c, female; d, leg; e, beak;/, . l ' rHampfpv on tllP 

antennae of female ; g, of larva. lllCiies 111 Ulclllieiei, OIL 111U 

roots of apple trees, just be- 
neath the surface of the ground. 

Hot water (temperature 150°) poured around the roots is said to be 
a good remedy for the extermination of the apple root-louse. We 
prefer a solution (B., Page 43) poured around the roots, at a tempera- 
ture of 130°. 




52 RETURN FRUIT BOXES. 



RETURN FRUIT BOXES. 



The practice of sending fruit to market and returning the boxes- 
and packages for future use furnished an excellent opportunity for 
the spread of insect pests, especially the codlin moth and scale 
insects. Many districts at isolated points have been infested by 
pests from this source, as the pests were not only brought to the 
orchards in boxes or packages used in shipping apples and pears r 
but also in packages used for shipping peaches, apricots, etc. In the 
Spring of 1880, the late Reuben Kerchival, of Courtland, Sacra- 
mento County, discovered that his peach baskets (ten thousand) were 
infested by larvae of codlin mo\h, from six to thirteen in each basket. 
He effectually cleansed the baskets and boxes by dipping them into 
boiling water to which some concentrated lye was added. 

At Santa Cruz we could not find codlin moth in any orchard 
visited. At a fruit store we found boxes returned from San Fran- 
cisco ; shipped in November and returned last Spring. The boxes 
were apparently clean, but some pieces of covers substituted for the 
ones sent contained pupa cases of codlin moth, from which the per- 
fect moth had emerged a short time previous. 

Boxes made of fir lumber should not be used for return purposes. 
There being but little pitch in the lumber, the larva of the codlin 
moth bores into the wood and secretes itself, making it difficult to 
destroy the larva or pupa. At the State Fair last year we exhibited 
an apple box cover made of fir lumber, taken from a box returned 
from San Francisco, containing nineteen larvae of codlin moth, 
hibernating in holes bored by the larvae in the wood. They will not 
bore in pine lumber in which there is pitch. Fruit growers should 
not receive any boxes (or parts of boxes) or packages in return for 
their own that belong to any other shipper. 

Fruit dealers (peddlers) should be prevented from carrying boxes 
not properly disinfected, from one fruit district or orchard to another. 

The cheapest and best method for disinfecting fruit boxes is that 
recommended in Rule 3, page 11. 

At shipping points, such as Sacramento, San Jose, Stockton, Vaca- 
ville, etc., shippers should have such arrangements made that all 
boxes could be disinfected at a nominal cost. 

This day we met a man peddling tomatoes. The nail holes and 
cracks in the boxes were infested with larvae and pupae of codling 
moth. Good-naturedly, he gave us a box to keep as a specimen. 

SCALE INSECTS ON NURSERY STOCK AND FRUIT. 

One source of the spread of insects injurious to fruit and fruit 
trees, is the transportation of nursery stock from one section of the 
State to another. The scale insects have been spread in this manner 
to a very great extent. For instance: Mr. A. comes to Sacramento 
with a choice collection of trees, etc., and offers them for sale through 
some dealer ignorant on the subject of insect pests, and desirous of 



RETURN FRUIT BOXES. 53 

making the stipulated commission as speedily as possible. It is 
probably known to some persons that there are orchards in Mr. A.'s 
district infested by dangerous insect pests. An inquiry is made 
regarding the insects referred to. The dealer, or Mr. A. if he is pres- 
ent, answers promptly that there are no such insects in the section 
of the district from which the trees, etc., were shipped. What proof 
is offered against the supposition that many, or may be all, of the 
trees, etc., are infested? None whatever; for we have only the word 
of the dealer, who wishes to make his commission, on the one hand, 
and the word of Mr. A., who wishes to sell his trees, etc., on the other 
hand, both selfishly interested parties.* 

The shipment of fruits to market is another source of the spread 
of scale_ insects. Examination will establish the fact that many of 
the foreign lemons found in our markets and stores are infested with 
scale insects. A close examination of the Los Angeles oranges show 
that many are infested with scale insects. Many of the apples and 
pears offered for sale in San Francisco and elsewhere are infested 
witli scale insects. These fruits, in the course of trade, are shipped 
and reshipped from point to point, and are thus spread throughout 
the whole State. Mr. Ashmead, of Florida, in a recent publication 
on "Insects Injurious to Fruit," etc., writing of the " method of 
spreading from tree to tree, and from grove to grove," says: "In my 
opinion, there are but three principal ways of transportation: first, 
on nursery stock; second, by the wind; third, on the fruit itself." 
We have positive proof that the scale insects have been carried from 
one orchard to another, and from one section of the State to another, 
on nursery stock and fruit. We hope that fruit growers will, for 
their own protection, assist the Boards of Horticultural Commis- 
sioners and local Inspectors in their efforts to protect the horticul- 
tural interests of the State, by enforcing the laws for the protection 
of horticulture and viticulture. When we calculate the immense 
loss — amounting already to millions of dollars — which the scale 
insects have cost the counties of Santa Clara and Los Angeles,^ and 
the codlin moth and red spider the central counties of the State, 
during the past four years; and above all when we reflect that, unless 
strict rules of prevention are adhered to, every fruit-growing district 
in the State will be infested within a few years, we feel that imme- 
diate, united, and strenuous efforts should be made to arrest the 
onward march of these destructive pests. " It may be, and doubtless 
is true, that, as the State becomes more thickly settled, successful 
culture will be confined to the intelligent and well informed; yet 
the fact nevertheless remains, that there are many fruit growers who 
will do nothing to ward off the evil until they are forced to measures 
by dire necessity." They take no notice of the few so-called bugs 
that make their appearance in the orchards, because they do them 
no material injury; but when these so-called bugs have increased to 
such an extent as to make it a question of "fruit or no fruit with 
them, their energies will be suddenly aroused, and the expenditure 
of dollars will be required to accomplish that which as many cents 
would have sufficed to do at the beginning." 



* Unfortunately for fruit growers, this comparison is founded on fads which occur every 
planting season, not only in Sacramento, but in every fruit-growing district m this State. 



54 QUARANTINE. 



QUARANTINE. 



It shall be the duty of local Inspectors appointed by Chieft he 
Executive Horticultural and Health Officer, to strictly enforce such 
quarantine rules and regulations as approved by the State Board of 
Viticultural Commissioners for the protection of fruit and fruit trees. 
By these means, fruits, plants, scions, etc., can be seized, as prescribed 
in sections three and four of an Act entitled " An Act to define and 
enlarge the duties and powers of the Board of State Viticultural 
Commissioners, and to authorize the appointment of certain officers, 
and to protect the interests of horticulture and viticulture." 

This will be the important part of the work, and will be supported 
by every enterprising fruit grower in the State. Only by vigilance 
can the spread of insect pests be prevented, especially from infested 
orchards, or districts of counties whose executive authority refuses to 
comply with the law, by refusing to appoint a County Board of Hor- 
ticultural Commissioners when a proper petition is presented, as 
required by statute. 

In order that the enterprising fruit growers of California may per- 
fectly understand what they have to protect themselves against, we 
call their attention to the following : 

We visited a county recently in which a large majority of the 
orchards are infested with certain insects, known to be injurious to 
fruit and fruit trees. We were present at a meeting of the Board of 
Supervisors of the county then in session. A petition was presented 
with nearly twenty signatures attached, asking the Board to appoint 
a Board of Horticultural Commissioners for the county. 

The Board of Supervisors is composed of five members, two of whom 
are fruit growers. Both fruit growers advocated granting the request 
of petitioners; first, as a public necessity; second, in compliance 
with their duty as public servants sworn to obey the laws, stating 
that the District Attorney of the county gave his opinion that the 
law was mandatory. Two members opposed granting the request of 
petitioners. 

Number One presented the names of three persons who were opposed 
to the appointment of a County Board of Horticultural Commis- 
sioners. Two of them he intimated were threatened by financial 
difficulties, and if compelled to clean their trees, the mortgagee hold- 
ing a claim on the property, would be likely to get the property. 
And only by mandamus would he vote for granting petition. 

This argument was answered by one of the petitioners (an exten- 
sive fruit grower), as follows : If the orchards referred to were not 
cleaned so that they would be restored to their former value, or that 
they would produce marketable fruit, the mortgagee would be sure 
to get the property. 

Number Two opposed grating the request of petitioners, and made 
some reference about moths in his store. It was suggested that other 
counties might quarantine themselves against infested fruits and 






EXPERIMENTS. 55 

trees from that county, and thereby be detrimental to the county at 
large, should they fail to appoint a Commission as petitioned for. 
Number One asked the gentleman with the moths in his store (the 
question was probably suggested by reference to quarantine): Sup- 
pose a man buys a pair of pants in your store, and afterwards he 
discovers they are moth eaten, what redress has he? 

Number Two— That was his (the buyer's) own look-out. 

Question taken — Ayes, 2; noes, 3. 

Be it remembered that the county referred to, is probably the 
largest fruit producing county, and the orchards more generally 
infested by scale insects than any other county in the State, and its 
shipment of trees go to nearly every county in the State. Therefore 
the necessity of protection against importations from infested orchards 
and nurseries in other counties. 



EXPERIMENTS. 



"It is common for us, in reporting experiments, to think we have 
facts, that are the outgrowth of our fancy only, and have no support 
in nature." "It is well worth the care of any one wfro should wish 
to be sure, as every one should, of conferring a benefit upon his fel- 
lows, rather than risk doing them an injury, to delay the expression 
of results of experiments until the correctness of their results are 
tested by repeated trials." 

"Before advising your neighbor to adopt a certain course or rem- 
edy, be sure, by repeated investigation, you are possessed of a fact, 
not a fancy. Experiments, to be convincing, require that they be 
subjected to well-defined, clearly perceived conditions." 

In reporting results of experiments it should be remembered that, 
" It is the weakest link that determines the strength of the chain." 

In reference to the various solutions, etc., recommended as insecti- 
cides, and applicable for use on fruit trees, we respectfully call the 
attention of the reader to " Structure, Chemical Elements and Growth 
of Trees." (Page 64; also to Fig. 75, p. 66.) The structure of the tree- 
pith, heart-wood, sap-wood, cambium or growing layer, inner bark, 
green layer of cellular tissue, the outer or corky layer bark, and the 
pith rays of hard cellular tissue, connecting the pith with the green 
or middle layer of bark, are fully described. 

It will be readily understood how easily a tree or plant may be 
injured. From personal observation we know .that serious damage 
has been done to trees by the use of solutions, etc., applied as insecti- 
cides, that contained matter detrimental to the tree if used improp- 
erly, and its recommendation as an insecticide based on experiments 
not properly tested. For instance, Mr. A. was told by Mr. B. to use 
a certain solution as an insecticide on his trees; he, Mr. B., had tried 
it as an experiment, and found in a few days, alter washing, that 
every particle of insect life on the trees washed was destroyed. Mr. 



56 WHAT HORTICULTURISTS SHOULD LEARN. 

A. did his work as recommended by Mr. B., and also informed his 
neighbor, Mr. C., of the discover} 7- , etc. For some time the new dis- 
covery was heralded as a success everywhere in the neighborhood. 
At the end of six months another discovery was made, the solution 
or wash applied contained some substance detrimental to the trees, 
which it took time to properly test, and a serious loss followed. 
When an examination was made, it was found that the green layer 
of cellular tissue, the inner bark, and the cambium or growing layer, 
of every plant washed, was destroyed. Result: The discovery of Mr. 

B. was a success as an insecticide, but unfortunately it was perni- 
cious to plant life. 

Fruit growers, beware of acids and mineral oils as insecticides. If 
either are used it should be in a diluted form. 



WHAT HORTICULTURISTS SHOULD LEARN. 



Horticulturists should make the study of insects, especially those 
known to be injurious to fruit and fruit trees, a part of their every 
day work. It is as necessary for them to understand the natural 
history and habits of such pests of the orchard as it is to understand 
how to plant, prune, etc. 

Some fruit growers think that for such practical investigation of 
insect life a scientific knowledge of the anatomy and physiology ot 
these creatures is indispensable. Such is not the case. It requires 
some apparatus, which can be procured at a nominal expense, a 
little patience, and an interest in the subject investigated, to learn 
eractically w r hat they have depended on others to furnish. 

The apparatus required : One small microscope, say $10 ; one one- 
nich focus watchmaker's glass, §1 50; glass mountings and balsam, 
$1 50. However, investigations may be made by use of the one-inch 
pins, costing $1 50. 

The investigator should procure some of the prominent publica- 
tions on insect life, such as: "Insects Injurious to," etc., Harris; 
"Insect World," Figuier; "Half Hour With the Insects," Packard; 
" Guide to the Study of Insects," Packard. These publications will 
be found of great assistance as a guide to reach definite results, 
especially the Guide of Packard. 

Should the fruit grower be unable to give half an hour of his time 
each day for such investigations, the ladies and children of the house- 
hold should be trained to make observations that, when compared 
with those of others, such information will be obtained as will repay 
them for their time and labor. 

When the life, history, and habits of these insects is learned to 
such an extent as to be familiar with the metamorphoses (changes), 
as larva, pupa (chrysalid), Imago (perfect insect), the fruit grower 
can go to work intelligently to exterminate them. 

By following the above recommendations the result gained will be 
replacing theoretical by practical information. 



EEPORT OF MESSES. CHAPIN AND VESTAL. 57 



REPORT OF MESSRS. CHAPIN AND VESTAL. 



[We have just received a copy of a report made to the Santa Clara Valley Horticultural 
Society, August 6, 1881, by Dr. S. F. Chapin and D. C. Vestal, members of the County Board of 
Horticultural Commissioners of Santa Clara. Want of space prevents the publication of this 
excellent report in full. We consider this the most valuable report yet published of the natural 
history, etc., of the scale insect Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comstock. 'The manner in which the 
results of the experiments made and the remedies discovered are reported, reflects great credit 
on the gentlemen named.] 

We have now specially to deal with a new species of Aspidiotus, 
which, so far as known, cannot be found elsewhere, although Mr. 
W. B. West now reports its presence at Stockton, and Chief Horti- 
cultural Officer Cooke states that it has invaded the vicinity of Sac- 
ramento, no doubt having spread from this locality. Its ravages have 
caused widespread alarm, and it is not too much to say, that unless 
it is speedily destroyed, it will utterly ruin the fruit interests of this 
coast. It does not simply check the growth of the tree, but it covers 
the tree literally entire, and the fruit nearly as much so ; rendering it 
unsalable and unfit for use; and, if left unchecked, the tree is killed 
in three years' time. The trees attacked embrace all varieties, ex- 
cepting the apricot. The Black Tartarian cherry and the Glout 
Morceau pear are free from its presence, and the Beurre Hardy pear 
nearly so, and the Gross prune and quince. It can be found at home 
upon the currant. Poplar and other ornamental shade trees give it 
a support. Osage orange hedges are badly infested. The effect of 
the scale insect upon the tree is peculiar. After a short residence 
there, the green layer of the bark becomes stained a very dark red 
color, which continues until the death of the limb or tree, unless the 
insect be killed. The bark may then be restored to its normal color 
and health. The damage in this county has already become so great 
as to cause the most serious losses, not alone to the fruit growers, but 
also to the public at large, and from the orchards affected, has greatly 
lessened the revenue which has been derived from the production 
and sale of fruit. One instance stated definitely will suffice to show 
these losses. This orchardist states that he has two thousand trees 
badly infested with scale. One thousand of these trees are totally 
destroyed, and will be dug up this season; the balance are badly 
injured, but can probably be saved. This portion of his orchard, 
in health, returned at least five thousand dollars per year. His 
loss on crop from these last year was over two thousand dollars. 
There is a total loss of crop this year on fifteen hundred trees. This 
orchard has regularly paid an interest of ten per cent, on one thou- 
sand dollars per acre. The scale pest alone has caused a loss of 
twenty thousand dollars to this orchardist. 

The Assessor's roll for 1881, reports in this county two hundred and 
thirty-five thousand five hundred and thirty-seven bearing trees of 
the apple, pear, plum, and peach. This does not include the large 
number of trees which have been destroyed and are unfruitful, 



58 REPORT OF MESSRS. CHAPIN AND VESTAL. 

neither the immense number of young trees that have been planted, 
but not yet paying, and as observed, it leaves out the large number 
of other varieties, cherries, almonds, apricots, etc., in bearing, which 
it is estimated would make a grand total of nearly one million trees. 
Should the losses experienced by the orchardists now suffering, be 
carried out to all, you can readily estimate the astonishing result. 
The value of the county fruit crop for 1880, is returned at nine hun- 
dred and seventy-six thousand four hundred and seventy-five 
dollars, notwithstanding the immense losses incurred. Thus the 
magnitude of this evil becomes apparent, and the problem to be 
solved is of vast importance. This pest is locally known as the 
Small, Round, Black Scale. 

The scale insect is massed upon the bark of the tree and fruit as 
well; the scale of a dark gray or blackish and tough material, which 
covers the insect, being very small and round in shape over the 
female, while that covering the male is much smaller, and elongated 
on one side. In both, the higher and central portion of the scale has 
a yellowish color, and directly under which may be found the insect 
itself, which is soft and delicate in structure, and of a pale straw 
color. There is no connection between the cover and the insect, 
which is merely protected by it from harm. The shell-like scale is 
formed either by the cast off skins of the larva, or by a waxy secretion 
of the body of the insect. 

The young female insect is oval in shape, and flattened. It emerges 
from the mother scale by the viviparous process, and not by hatch- 
ing from an egg, as the species Aspidiotus conchiformis. At first it is 
very small, and hardly perceptible to the naked eye, but careful 
observation will detect it as a minute yellow dot on the bark of the 
tree, crawling about with the six legs with which it is provided, and 
seeking a favorable locality upon which to fix itself for life. It will 
crawl about for only a day or two, and then fastens itself to the bark 
by a beak-like protuberance which it inserts, and procures nourish- 
ment from the juices of the tree. Immediately upon fixing itself it 
begins to be covered with a silvery material, which, as it grows older, 
is gradually changed in color to a very dark hue, and enlarges to the 
size of about one sixteenth of an inch in diameter. The insect, soon 
after fixing itself, loses its legs and antennae, and thus remains through 
life, keeping its flattened shape, but growing wrinkled and almost 
round, gradually increasing in size to perhaps one sixty-fourth of an 
inch in width and one fiftieth of an inch in length when full of 
young. After the j^oung emerge it is dried up and disappears. We 
have counted from the female, when full of young, between fifty and 
sixty of the minute sacs, which answer for eggs, and in which are 
developed the young, perfectly formed insects, ready to crawl about. 

The young male insect is produced in the same manner and at 
the same time, though not in such numbers; perhaps a half dozen 
males to a hundred females. In size the male is about one third 
that of the female and in shape very different, being elongated and 
more angular, provided with six legs, placed differently upon the 
body, with two antennaa and two eyes, and with a rounded teat-like 
protuberance at the rear portion of the body, ending with a point. 
At this stage of its existence the male has no wings, and it cannot be 
discerned without the aid of a magnifying glass. The color of the 



REPORT OF MESSRS. CHAPIN AND VESTAL. 59 

young male is not a yellow, but of a steel-like or whitish hue. It 
crawls about and fixes itself upon the bark, as does the young female, 
and becomes covered with a scale in the same manner, but which is 
elongated upon one side, and not more than one half the size of the 
scale of the female. The male, after remaining its allotted time in 
the pupa state, emerges as a fully developed insect, having eyes, 
antennae, six legs, and one pair of very long wings of a reddish and 
transparent appearance; the protuberance at the rear end of the 
body is developed into a very long tapering point, nearly as long as 
the body itself. The perfect winged male is so minute, it can with 
great difficulty be discerned by the naked eye crawling and flying 
about in search of the female, which it impregnates under the scale ; 
and then, having fulfilled its mission, dies. This season we saw the 
winged males first appear on March 23d, and in great numbers for a 
few days. The first brood of young scales appeared the latter part of 
April. On June 27th we found the males from the first brood under 
the scales nearly developed, with appendages and wing pads, and on 
July 2d large numbers of them flying about; also as late as July 25th 
and still later on, August 2d, a few were seen. On July 23d the trees 
were covered with the young of the second brood. August 2d young- 
males of the second brood were found crawling about. Bark scraped 
clean on the twenty-third of July was found on the twenty-fifth alive 
with young insects, and some of them already commencing to be 
covered with scale. 

The winged males may be expected again to appear the latter part 
of September or the first of October, and the third brood of young 
the latter part of October and in November. The last brood remains 
through the winter under the scale until the approach of warm 
weather in the Spring when they again appear. While the Aspidi- 
otus conchiformis will develop but one, or at most two broods per sea- 
son, this species, Aspidiotus perniciosus, will produce three broods, and 
each female probably fifty young. The natural enemies of the scale 
insect are the larvae of some varieties of the coccincellse, or lady- 
birds. This season has developed, in great numbers, the presence of 
another important enemy of the scale, viz.: the Chrysopa, or lace- 
winged fly, the larvse of which prey upon it. This is a beautiful, 
slender, and delicate fly, bright green in color, with large, golden 
eyes, and very long wings, like lace. The eggs are very minute, white, 
and oval in shape, and are attached by a long and slender pedicle to 
the under side of leaves or the fruit. The larva is about one quarter 
of an inch long— slender and tapering from the middle toward both 
ends. It is provided with jaws, each perforated with a hole through 
which it sucks the juice of its victim. 

[The result of twenty-six experiments here reported, from which 
we select Nos. 5 to 11, 15, 16, 21, and 22.] 

No. 5.— Concentrated lye, one pound ; water, one gallon. 1 ebruary, 
1881 _One almond tree, one Easter Beurre pear tree, and two apple 
trees, grafted, were washed by brush with this strength of lye in 
order to destroy the red spider and its eggs, which could not be de- 
stroyed by previous applications of lye, one pound to five gallons 
and also one pound to three gallons. Another and the mam reason 
being to ascertain the effects of very strong lye upon the trees. JNo 
scale upon these trees. Result— destroyed the red spider eggs com- 



60 REPORT OF MESSRS. CHAPIN AND VESTAL. 

pletely, drying them up at once and not one so far as known up to this 
date (August 6, 1881) having hatched since the application was made. 
The effect upon the bark and health of all these trees was wonder- 
fully good; the bark being very smooth, and having a bright green 
velvety appearance and totally free from all moss or other parasites. 

No. 6— Concentrated lye, one pound; water, one gallon. The 
experiments in this number were made upon a section of orchard in 
a square block comprising three hundred and fifty-seven Ickworth 
plum trees cut down and grafted into Petite prune; some yearling- 
prune trees having been put in in places, and washed as .were the 
plums. Of these, one hundred and twenty-six trees were washed in 
February 1881, with the above strong lye applied with a brush. 
Among the three hundred and fifty-seven trees were eight trees badly 
infested with scale. No others had any scale upon them. The infested 
trees were scattered about as follows and washed as indicated. Num- 
ber ten in first row and four in eleventh row were washed with lye one 
pound to three gallons water; effect was not quite sufficient to com- 
pletely destroy the scale, though so injured that they did not breed. 
Afterwards these two trees were washed one pound to one gallon, and 
this effectually ended the scale. Numbers seven in sixth row, ten in 
seventh row, eleven in twelfth row, eight in fourteenth row, three in 
seventeenth row, and eleven in seventeenth row were washed with 
lye one pound to one gallon water with the effect of completely 
destroying every scale, and at this date not a vestige of scale can be 
found. The trees have been in the finest possible condition from 
the time of this application. 

No. 7. — Five Bartlett pear trees obtained and planted last Winter 
and scattered among a considerable number, although carefully 
examined at the time for scale, were found in June to have a few 
scales upon them. These were at once treated with one pound to 
one and one half gallons of water, which immediately destroyed all 
the scale. But applied at this season of the year it takes more effect 
upon the bark, and is better used in the Winter. 

In the following experiments the trees were all badly infested with 
the scale. 

No. 8. — Concentrated lye, one and one half pounds; water, one 
gallon. June 24, 1881 : applied to two Clairgeau pear trees ; brush 
used in order to save foliage; many limbs in appearance dead from 
effects of scale. June 27: trees burned considerably; scale killed. 
July 2 : much of the bark showing a healthier appearance. July 
23: trees still better. August 2: no sign of scale; green layer of 
bark being restored very rapidly ; the fruit quite clean because no 
scales of second brood were upon it. 

No. 9. — Concentrated lye, one and one half pounds ; water, one gal- 
lon. July 23, 1881 : applied on a portion of tree to ascertain the 
effect upon the stain of the bark. July 23: the bark where washed 
shows much less stain; lighter in color and the green layer being- 
restored. August 2: stain rapidly disappearing. 

No. 10. — Concentrated l3 T e, one pound; water, one gallon. July 5, 
1881 : mixed accurately, and applied same day upon pear tree. July 
23 : scale entirely destroyed ; bark slightly burned by the wash, but 
now appears perfectly healthy and good where previously sound ; 
leaf buds healthy. August 2: no signs of scale; constant improve- 



-REPORT OF MESSRS. CHAPIN AND VESTAL. 61 

merit in tree. Considered the best wash for Winter use while the tree 
is dormant. 

No. 11.— Concentrated lye, one pound; water, one and one half 
gallons : tree washed same time as above, and with the same good 
results — scale killed. 

No. 15.— Kerosene, low grade and heavy. June 1, 1881 : applied to 
two pear trees ; syringe with coarse spray used and thrown all over- 
trees. June 27: observed that foliage had been killed, and the trees 
considerably affected— scale killed. July 2 : new leaf buds coming 
out. July 23: new foliage all over trees, and new vigor all through 
trees ; new shoots six inches long— scale all killed and green layerof 
bark, fresh and healthy to all appearance. August 2: foliage increas- 
ing rapidly all over the trees and the trees gaining in health. 

No. 16. — Kerosene, high grade. June 1, 1881 : applied by spray 
upon two pear trees. June 27: observed that the foliage had not 
been killed, but that the scale had been all destroyed, the trees appar- 
ently uninjured. ^ July 2: new leaf buds coming forth. August 2: 
trees healthy ; foliage uninjured ; scale showing no signs of its pres- 
ence, the fruit showing less effects from scale on account of the wash 
it had received. 

No. 21. — Whale oil soap and sulphur mixture (codlin moth wash) r 
one pound ; water, one gallon.' June 23, 1881 : applied by spray over 
pear tree, covering foliage and fruit thoroughly. July 23: scale 
killed; trees gaining in health: green layerof bark being restored; 
fruit greatly improved in appearance. August 2 : tree still improv- 
ing, also the fruit. 

(This wash is recommended to be applied from May 15th to June 
15th. This wash, of one half the strength here used, has proven 
ineffectual in destroying the scale, and should, in all instances, be 
used in the strength of one pound to one gallon of water.) 

No. 22. — Soft soap, one pound; sulphur, 1 pound; tobacco, one 
pound ; water, three gallons. July 5, 1881 : applied upon two trees 
by spray, covering trees, foliage, and fruit thoroughly. July 23, 1881 : 
quite effectual; scale mostly destroyed, but not altogether; trees and 
foliage not affected by wash ; fruit greatly improved in appearance. 
August 2, 1881 : same as noted above. 

(A very good wash for Summer use; should be applied from the 
middle of May to the middle of June.) 

A Fellenberg prune tree in another orchard, washed with the same 
preparation June 1, 1881, and badly infested with scale, shows, at 
this date, (Aug. 6th), that the scale has all been destroyed, and the 
tree in a thrifty condition. 

Thorough and constant cultivation of an orchard should be kept 
up, and diligent watchfulness of every tree by the owner himself 
exercised, so that no scale insect shall escape observation, and when 
found, the proper remedy should be instantly applied. The above 
experiments, Nos. 5, 6, and 7, answer the frequent inquiries as to 
how a young orchard may be kept free from the scale insect. In the 
orchard referred to, the scale pest has been stamped out at its incep- 
tion. Our investigations show that where crude petroleum has been 
used it kills the tree, if the sap is moving; where the tree is entirely 
dormant, it may be used, perhaps, without destroying the tree. 
Crude petroleum is too heavy, and its use is not recommended. 



62 REPORT OF MESSRS. CHAPIN AND VESTAL. 

Kerosene (refined coal oil) in no instance has killed the tree, but has 
destroyed the scale and relieved the tree from its presence, thus 
enabling it to recover. Whilenot fertilizing the tree, it is effectual 
as a remedy, and can be applied at any season of the year, if of a 
high grade (150 test). The best time, however, to apply it, is when 
the tree is dormant, and invariably used when the tree is dry, as it 
will be of no avail if applied to a wet surface. It should be applied 
in as fine a spray as possible, and as little used as will once cover the 
tree, taking care that the entire tree is sprayed; in this way high 
grade kerosene is recommended. A lower grade (110 test) maybe 
used only when the tree is dormant. The best time for application 
is in the Autumn, after the leaves have fallen. Concentrated lye 
has proved itself, where used of sufficient strength, to be thoroughly 
reliable and effectual, and has the great property of fertilizing the 
tree and soil, as potash is one of the natural constituents of both, and 
is required for the health of the tree. Its use is therefore recom- 
mended — sixty pounds of the concentrated lye of the American Lye 
Company, is equivalent to one hundred pounds of Commercial 
potash. 

All orchards, even though showing no scale, should be washed with 
concentrated lye of the strength of one pound to three gallons of 
water, as this strength will keep trees healthy, and free from moss 
and filth. Where infested with scale insects, the strength of one 
pound of lye to one gallon of water (or not less than one pound to 
one and one half gallons of water) should be used. This strength 
will destroy all scale, and also will completely destroy eggs and larva? 
of the red spider, as found from experiments made; any less strength 
will not destroy the eggs of this mite. Lye should be applied in a 
spray, by the use of a garden syringe, or, where large orchards are 
treated, the most economical means is to use a large barrel or tank 
placed upon a wagon or sled, and drawn through the orchard, and 
the solution thrown upon the tree by a force pump, through thirty 
or forty feet of hose, to which is attached a nozzle, having for its 
opening a simple straight slit, very narrow in width, and one six- 
teenth to one eighth of an inch long. Great care should be observed 
to cover all portions of the tree, as upon its thorough application 
depends its success. Care should also be taken to protect the body 
from its effects, as it burns the skin. The lye is best broken up and 
dissolved in a small quantity of boiling water, and then the required 
strength obtained by adding cold water. Strong lye should only be 
used when the tree is dormant, as in any effectual strength it will 
burn the foliage. One hundred large trees per day can be washed 
^thoroughly. 

Where trees are very bad it is recommended to first apply kerosene 
in the Autumn, and then by the time the sap starts late in Winter 
apply lye, one pound to two and one half gallons of water. For Sum- 
mer washes, (other than high grade kerosene) to be best applied 
about the first of June, the washes, No. 21. — Whale oil soap, and 
sulphur. Mixture, one pound to one gallon of water; or, No. 22. — 
Soft soap, one pound; sulphur, one pound; tobacco, one pound; 
added to three gallons of water, are all that can be recommended. 

The different proposed means of destroying the scale, by boring 
the trunk of the tree and putting in the hole preparations of various 



REPORT OF MESSRS. CHAPIN AND VESTAL. 63 

sorts, have been proven ineffectual, as we have observed that where 
tried no effect at all has been produced, and the trees are still alive 
with scale. So far as we can determine, no remedy can be effectual 
which does not directly reach the scale, and through its penetrating 
power, destroy the insect itself. The above experiments show that 
young orchards may be kept free from scale by constant care, and 
where invaded, the insect at once destroyed. Old orchards, infested 
very seriously, may become cleared and the trees given new life and 
vigor. It is the firm conviction of your committee that, could united 
action be secured, this pest could be speedily destroyed and stamped 
out of existence. 



64 PAPER BY COL. W. S. CLARK. 



STRUCTURE, CHEMICAL ELEMENTS AND GROWTH OF TREES. 



[Extracts from a paper read by Col. W. S. Clark, President Massachusetts Agricultural College.] 

"The young willow, under kindly influences, will increase in size 
and weight daily until the chilling winds of Autumn breathe upon 
it. Then the leaves fall, growth ceases, and the plant enters upon a 
period of repose, similar in many respects to the hibernation of ani- 
mals. This annual cessation of the vital action in plants appears to- 
be essential to the health of most species, though a few, like the 
orange and lemon, do not require it. In cold climates, the absence 
of heat in Winter, and in warm latitudes, the want of water during 
the periodical dry season, are the principal causes which operate 
upon vegetation to enforce this law of nature." 

" The distinction between deciduous and evergreen species is, that 
the former lose their foliage at the end of the growing season, while 
the latter retain each perfected leaf one, two, or more years. Never- 
theless, evergreens usually have their time of rest no less than 
deciduous plants, and those which are deciduous in one climate, may 
become evergreens in another. Thus the apple and plum tree have 
become evergreens in Madeira." 

"Professor Hoffman made a series of experiments from 1863 to 
1870, to determine whether this annular period of rest was really 
necessary for ordinary plants. . He found that when the lilac and 
other similar species were forced under glass to grow continuously by 
the constant pressure of heat, light, moisture, and proper soil, they 
ceased to bloom after the first year, and died on the second or third. 
Hence the importance, so well known to skillful gardeners, of giving 
alternations of heat and cold, moisture and drouth, to plants culti- 
vated under glass, during their proper seasons of activity and repose. 
Persons ignorant of these facts, water them alike at all seasons of 
the year. The plants having no opportunity to ripen their tissues, 
can never be in a condition to blossom " (or bear fruit). 

"After the fall of the leaves, and the ripening of the wood and 
buds, the stem and branches of most trees and shrubs will be found, 
upon examination, to be unusually dry and free from sap, and it has 
been said that this was an indication of hardiness. That most of our 
indigenous species assume this condition during about one half of 
the year is doubtless true, but the presence or absence of sap cannot 
be considered as conclusive evidence of tenderness or hardiness. The 
grapevine appears quite porous and free from sap in December, but 
is often winter killed. On the other hand the sugar and silver-leaved 
maples are usually full of sap on some days of every month in the 
year, and yet are perfectly hardy." 

" When ordinary cells are united into a more or less extended 
structure, they constitute what is known as cellular tissue. This 
may be soft and pulpy, as is in the flesh of an apple, loose and 
tender as in the pith of an elder, firm and tough as in birch-bark, 



PAPER BY COL. W. 3. CLARK. 65 

or hard and brittle as in the shell of a hickory nut, or the stone of a 
peach." 

" The tissue of the inner bark, consisting of very long and narrow 
cells overlapping each other at the ends, is called bast; and that of 
the stem, in which the cells are similar, but shorter, is called woody 
fiber. The tubes which are formed, are styled ducts or vessels, and, 
as they are mingled with woody fiber in the annual growth of timber, 
the ordinary combination of these is named fibro-vascular tissue." 

"When these elongated cells and ducts are straight and parallel, 
as in the chestnut, the wood of which they are the warp splits 
easily, but when they are interlaced and blended irregularly, the 
longitudinal grain. of the wood will resemble that of elm." 

" Every seed and every young plant consists wholly of cellular 
tissue, but with the development of leaves is combined the growth 
of fibro-vascular tissue." 

"The first vessels to appear in the plantlet are arranged in a circle 
around a column of tissue, which remains loose and soft, and after 
the first season dries up and dies. This is called the pith, and seems 
essential to the life of every woody stem and branch during its 
infancy, although its special function is unknown. Between the 
vessels around the pith may be seen the rays of cellular tissue, which 
ultimately become hard and firm, and which unite in bonds, never 
broken except by some external force, the inside of the stem with 
the inside of the bark. These rays make up the woof and have much 
to do with the distinctive peculiarities of different sorts of timber." 

" Immediately outside the vessels inclosing the pith grows a layer 
of woody fiber, upon which, in a more or less developed state, accord- 
ing to season, is a layer of organizable material, called cambium, 
which may be regarded as the seat of life of the plant. Next to 
the cambium, and united to the wood by the rays from the pith, is 
the bark, consisting of three layers." 

" The inner, or fibrous layer, is formed by bast cells, and firm cellu- 
lar tissue. Surrounding the inner bark is a layer of cellular tissue, 
in which the rays from the pith terminate, and which is named the 
green layer, because it often exhibits this color in young shoots, and 
then performs the same function with the green tissues of the leaf. 
Outside of all this is the corky layer, consisting of dry, dead^ cellular 
tissue, and developed annually from the green layer. This is not 
usually of much thickness, or consequence, but sometimes, as in the 
cork oak of Spain, it becomes an important article of commerce." 

"The growth of our trees goes on in the cambium layer, from 
which is produced annually a layer of wood, and a layer of bark, 
each formed of longitudinal fibro-vascular tissue, and horizontal 
cellular tissue." 

"As the trunk expands, the outer bark cracks and falls oil, as in 
the shag-bark hickory, or distends and envelops it with a somewhat 
smooth covering, as in the beech and birch. In these latter cases the 
annual corticaflayers are quite thin, and the outer layer very grad- 
ually wastes away, under the influence of winds and storms. In the 
cork oak the outer layer is specially thickened, and if removed every 
eighth year, may be obtained in stout, elastic sheets, which would 
crack and fall to the ground in the process of time, if not harvested. 
9 



66 



PAPER BY COL. W. S. CLARK. 



The structure of the root is not unlike that of the stem, except that 
the pith is usually wanting, as well as the green layer of the bark, 
which could not be formed, nor be of any use in the dark eartli 
where the root makes its home." 




Description of Fig. 75. 

Fig. 75 represents a section, both vertical and horizontal, of a branch of a sugar maple, two 
years old, as it appears in December. The portion included in the lines marked A is of the 
first year's growth; those marked B indicate the wood of the second year; while those marked 
C inclose the three layers of the bark. D represents the pith of loose cellular tissue; E the pith 
rays or silver grain of hard cellular tissue connecting the pith with the green or middle layer 
of bark, which also consists wholly of cellular tissue; F marks the outer or corky layer of the 
bark, which is composed of dry, dead cells, which are formed of consecutive layers from the 
outer portion of the living green layer; G is the green layer of cellular tissue. " H shows the 
liber or inner bark, made up of cellular tissue penetrated by long bast cells, arranged parallel 
with the axis of growth. I represents the place of the cambium or growing layer of organiza- 
ble material which descends from the leaves between the liber and the sap-wood during the 
period of growth. K is woody fibre which gives strength to the stem, and through which the 
crude sap rises. L indicates the vessels or ducts, with various markings, such as dots, rings, and 
spirals, which are formed most abundantly in the Spring, and usually contain no fluid. They 
convey gases and aqueous vapors, and it may be that a large proportion of all the water ascend- 
ing from the roots to the leaves passes through them as vapor. M is the layer of spiral vessels 
or ducts which always inclose the pith, and in the young shoot extend into the leaves and unite 
them to the pith during its life, which ceases with the first season. 

" This part of the plant develops an annual layer of wood and bark, 
with rays of cellular tissue like the stem. The number and extent 
of root branches in the soil, depend much upon its fertility and 
adaptation to the plant." 

"As the vigor of vegetable growth depends chiefly on the action of 
the roots, the importance of thorough tillage is apparent." 



PAPER BY COL. W. S. CLAPK. 67 

" The striking peculiarity in the structure of the root is the absorb- 
ent power of the young rootless, which are either covered with a 
thick, spongy layer of cellular tissue, or furnished, as is commonly 
the case, with exceeding minute but innumerable hairs, which pene- 
trate the crevices of the earth in every direction in search of food. 
The extreme tips of the rootlets, about one sixth of an inch in length, 
are not clothed with hairs, nor capable of absorption, but serve as 
entering wedges for the advancing root, which lengthens only near 
the extremity." 

"The bark of the larger roots becomes thick and impervious, like 
that of the trunk and its older branches, and the inner portion of 
the wood, both above and below ground, gradually solidifies, and 
becomes unfitted for the free transmission of fluids. It is then called 
heartwood, in distinction from the sapwood, through which fluids 
are transmitted freely. The farther any layer of wood or bark is 
removed from the living cambium, the less vitality does it retain, 
and consequently the less useful is it in the economy of the plant." 

" The leaf has been said, with some propriety, to be an extension 
of the bark, and consists of a framework of fibro-vascular tissue 
forming the stalk and veins, with a double layer of loose cellular 
tissue covered with a distinct epidermis or skin. The vessels in the 
leafstalk and the veins, which are its branches, are also in two layers, 
the upper connecting the leaf with the vessels surrounding the pith, 
which are called spiral on account of their peculiar markings, and 
the lower which are united to the cambium layer through the tissue 
of the inner bark." 

"The distinctive features of the leaf is the presence of stomata or 
breathing pores, which are usually more numerous on the under 
side. These stomata are furnished with openings, so constructed as 
to close in very dry air, and open in that which is moist, but they 
the} r always remain shut except under the stimulus of light. As 
the chief function of the rootlets is to absorb the liquid food of the 
plant from the earth, so it is the special work of the stomata to 
transpire the surplus water of the crude sap, which has been 
employed as a carrier of food from one extremity of the countless 
series of cells which build up the plant, to the other, in some cases 
a distance of five hundred feet, through imperforate membranes, 
and against the force of gravitation." 

"In regard to the size of vegetable cells, it is difficult to obtain a 
correct conception, unless one is familiar with the use of a compound 
microscope. In every cubic inch of maple-wood there are probably 
not less than one hundred million cells of the venous tissues. The 
average diameter of ordinary plant-cells is less than one four-hun- 
dredth of an inch. And even the ducts or continous tubes are not 
usually much larger, and are often smaller than this. Professor Gray 
informs us that sap must pass through two thousand partitions in 
every inch of bass-wood through which it rises." 

"Plants produce all the food and all the vital air which are indis- 
pensable to animals. Every growing plant may be regarded as a 
machine for converting mineral water into cellulose, gum, starch, 
sugar, and the various albuminoids by the digestion and assimilation 
of which animals live and grow. Every thriving plant is also 
exhaling continual! v under the stimulus of sunlight from its myriads 



68 PAPER BY COL. W. S. CLARK. 

of stomata, pure vapor of water and oxygen gas; and we have often 
wished that once at least in every Summer, these inestimable bless- 
ings might become visible as they rise in beautiful though unseen 
forms and mingle with our atmosphere." 

"The chemical elements of plants and animals are of course iden- 
tical. Three are very common in all organic tissues— carbon, oxy- 
gen, and hydrogen— and three more are found wherever there is life, 
though usually in very small quantity— nitrogen, phosphorus^ and 
sulphur. Besides these there are a few metals which are essential to 
the growth of healthy and perfect plants. Thus iron in very minute 
proportions is found ni the green coloring matter, or chlorophyl of 
every plant; and chlorophyl may be regarded as analogous to the gas- 
tric juice of animals, since without it plants are incapable of digesting 
carbonic acid, or elaborating cambium, or other organizable matter. 
Potassa, lime, and magnesia, are also necessary ingredients in the 
food of all plants; and though they are scarcely to be regarded as 
constituent parts of any vegetable tissue or product, they are absorbed 
by the roots, circulate in the sap, and are probably deposited in all 
cells, since a greater or less quantity of incombustible ash remains 
wherever they are burned. Their presence doubtless aids in the 
formation of vegetable acids and other compounds, and assists in 
the transference of elaborated or assimilable material, from one part 
of the plant to another." 

"It is a fact worthy of special notice that the amount and kind of 
mineral matters absorbed by a growing plant may be caused to vary 
greatly by artificial treatment. The ash of the wild beet contains 
more soda than potassa, but the best and sweetest sugar beets now 
contain at least three times as much potassa as soda. As a soda 
plant, therefore, it was worthless, having scarcely a trace of sugar, 
but the physiological changes produced by artificial treatment have 
made it one of the most valuable of agricultural plants, yielding a 
juice with from twelve to fifteen per cent, of cane sugar. There is 
every reason to believe that the flavor of fruits and the most desira- 
ble qualities of all the vegetable products of the farm and the garden 
may be thus improved and controlled by the intelligent use of fer- 
tilizers. And this consideration adds practical importance to the 
study of vegetable physiology. We all know that whenever a hive 
of bees find themselves without a queen, or royal eggs, they at once 
proceed to develop a common egg into a royal larva, by feeding it 
with a peculiar food. Is it unreasonable to hope that we may learn 
how to modify as radically the nature and qualities of plants by a 
similar process? 

"The food of plants consists chiefly of carbonic acid gas, and is 
absorbed from the air by the green parts, which, like the leaves and 
young bark, contains chlorophyl, and are furnished with stomata. 
More than half the weight of ordinary dry vegetable matter is thus 
derived from the atmosphere. Water is the most important of the 
remaining constituents of plant-food, and in the liquid form is wholly 
absorbed by the rootlets, though aqueous vapor must, under some 
circumstances, be imbibed by other vegetable organs. The elements 
of water, hydrogen and oxygen, are united with carbon in the same 
proportion in which they exist in this fluid in the living cells, prin- 
cipally of the leaf, to form the common material of vegetable tissues 



PAPER BY COL. W. S. CLARK. 69 

called cellulose, and several other substances having nearly or pre- 
cisely the same composition, but different properties and uses. These 
are mainly starch, gum, and several varieties of sugar, which, by the 
vital action of plants, are transformed, one into the other, or into cellu- 
lose, according to the requirements of the vegetable economy. Only 
a small portion, however, of the water taken up by the roots is assim- 
ilated, much the largest being exhaled by the leaves. It performs, 
nevertheless, most valuable service as a common carrier throughout 
the various parts of the plants, both of those nitrogeneous and other 
substances absorbed in very dilute solution from the soil, and of 
these organic compounds formed within the plant and essential to 
its growth in the several stages of its development. 

"The vital fluid corresponding to the blood of animals, and exist- 
ing in every young and growing vegetable cell, is called protoplasm, 
and is a somewhat viscid substance, containing, in addition to carbon, 
oxygen, and hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus." 

CIRCULATION OF SAPS. 

"In consideration of the subject of the circulation of saps in the 
entire plant, two topics are involved about which there have been 
much controversy and speculation, and too little observation and 
true philosophy. The first relates to the ascent of what is styled the 
crude sap, which enters at the root and rises against the force of grav- 
itation to the topmost leaf of even the tallest tree. The other has 
reference to the return of the so-called elaborated sap from the leaf 
to the. root, so as to complete a tree's circulation. Many have said 
there is no such thing as a general circulation of sap ; but no one 
doubts the fact of an upward flow from the roots, and a vast exhala- 
tion of water from the foliage during the period when the vital forces 
of the plant are active. It is universally admitted that the cells con- 
taining chlorophyl are the organs in which the elements of the 
carbo-hydrates are combined, and from which, therefore, they must 
pass by some channel to all other parts of the plant, where either 
growth occurs, or amyloid substances are stored for future uses." 
("Whether the albuminoids are formed also in the cells of the leaf, 
or are the result of combinations occurring in the cambium 
between the soluble carbo-hydrates and the ingredients of the crude 
ascending sap, is not certain, and has no necessary connection with 
the question.") 

"Investigation seems to demonstrate that the cambium layer is 
the seat of life, and that whenever the direct communication between 
the root and the foliage is cut off in this layer during one entire sea- 
son of growth, the whole plant perishes. It has also been deter- 
mined by experiment that if several rings of bark be removed from 
a growing shoot in such a manner that on one of the isolated sections 
of bark there be no leaf, while leaves remain on others above and 
below this, then the leafless section will fail to make any growth in 
any part. All other sections, if furnished with one or more healthy 
leaves, will increase in thickness by the formation of new leaves, of 
wood and bark. This seems to prove tba^t the material for growth is 
elaborated by the leaves, and is transmitted only through the^cam- 
bium and has no power of penetrating the tissues of the wood." 



70 CONCLUSION. 

"The peculiar vital and organic power of the cambium is remark- 
ably illustrated in the structure and growth of grafted trees. Every 
person is aware that pear trees are grown upon quince roots, and that 
they often bear finer fruit than when cultivated as standards. This 
is doubtless owing to the fact that quince roots, being diminutive, 
furnish less water to the leaves, which thus elaborate a richer sap, 
and produce more perfectly developed wood and fruit." 

"The apricot may be grafted on the plum, and the peach on the 
apricot, and the almond on the peach, and thus we may produce a 
tree with plum roots and almond leaves. The wood, however, of the 
stem, will consist of four distinct varieties, though formed from one 
continuous cambium layer. Below the almond wood and bark we 
shall have perfect peach wood and bark, then perfect apricot wood 
and bark, and at the bottom perfect plum wood and bark. In this 
curious instance we see the intimate correspondence between the 
bark and the leaf, for if we should remove the almond branches we 
might cause the several sorts of wood to develop buds and leafy 
twigs, each of its own kind. Each section of the compound stem 
has its seat of life in the cambium, and the cambium of each repro- 
duces cells of its own species out of a common nutrient fluid. Thus 
there is seen to be a flow of sap upward in the wood and a flow 
of organizable material, essential to the life of the plant, proceeding 
from the leaf to the root, through the bark and cambium layer. 
From this perfected sap the growth of the season is formed, and pro- 
vision for the beginning of the next season's growth is also stored up, 
commonly in the root," 

As the fact of a rootward flow of elaborated sap is very generally 
denied at the present time, it may be w r ell to quote a singfe line from 
the edition published in 1870 of the admirable text-book on botany 
by the late Professor Henfrey, of London, which has been carefully 
revised by Dr. Masters. In reference to the subject he says: "The 
evidence of a descent of elaborated sap is overwhelming." 

Want of space prevents copying in full this excellent paper, which 
should be read by every fruit grower. (See Massachusetts Agricultu- 
ral Reports, 1873-74, pages 159 to 204.) 

Of this paper, Professor Agassiz said : " I need not praise what has 
been said by President Clark now, for the man who can make such 
investigations, and report them in such a manner, has the reward of 
his work in himself, and no eulogy of others can add to his gratifi- 
cation," etc. 



CONCLUSION. 



There are over twenty species of Coccidx (scale insects) found on 
this coast. The Coccidse, or bark lice, injure the tree by piercing the 
bark, foliage, or fruit, for the purpose of sucking the sap. 

Aphidiv — These insects do mischief by tapping the delicate tissues 
of plants with their suckers, and by extracting the richest sap. Some 
of the Aphides, which belong to the genus Lachnus, do great damage 



CONCLUSION. 71 

to the apple tree. They are well known by the curious white cottony 
substance which encircles them, and protects them from the air. 

Codlin Moth. — Since writing the article on codlin moth, we met an 
entomologist, who informed us that he had established, beyond 
doubt, that there is but one brood of the codlin moth in each year; 
that he had experimented by raising them in his office, etc., and that 
he considered the matter settled. We heartily wish it were so; but, 
alas! experiments in the orchards prove our statement correct. We 
state facts, not fancies. In the matter referred to, we studied nature 
at its home, and publish the results as truths. 

Enterprising fruit growers, the time for sentimentality is past. If 
your neighbor persists in doing injury to the whole community and 
State by maintaining a public nuisance (insect pests) in his orchard 
or premises, and refuses or neglects to do his duty in the matter by 
taking the necessary steps toward its abatement, report him at once 
to the Horticultural officer or local Inspector of the district where 
such orchard and premises are located. 

It has been reported from various sections of this State that the 
larvse of the codlin moth had been found in the plums, peaches, etc. 
In the course of our investigations since the Spring of 1877, we have 
only found one specimen. In the Spring of 1879 we found a larva 
of the codlin moth in a peach at Newcastle, Placer County. We 
think a larva found in the peach, of a smaller species of Tortricidse 
than the codlin moth, and a larva found in the plum (mistaken by 
some persons for curculio) are identical. Those larvae are much 
smaller than the larvae of the codlin moth, but otherwise resemble 
them in appearance; hence the foundation of such reports. 

Experiments are being made at the present time by Mr. Kiser, at 
San Jose, for destroying scale insects, by covering the tree with a 
tent, and using steam and other vapors. Also, by Mr. J. H.. Wheeler, 
manufacturer of carbon bisulphide, on citrus trees, at Santa Barbara, 
using a covering for the tree and applying carbon bisulphide, for 
destroying the cottony cushion scale, Iceryia purchasi. Reports will 
be published as soon as received. 

The remedies recommended in this work have been properly 
experimented with, and we know that they have proved effective as 
insecticides; we also know that they are not injurious to the tree or 
plant, but beneficial in every sense. 

In writing and compiling this work, we have endeavored to pre- 
sent our views in plain language, and have been as sparing as possi- 
ble in the use of technical scientific terms. We hope, at some future 
time, to give a more extended description of the insects injurious to 
fruit and fruit trees in California, and we bespeak for this hastily 
prepared work the reader's kind indulgence. 

Specimens of perfect insects, or their larvae and pupa, will, at all 
times be thankfully received at this office. 

Respectfully submitted, 

MATTHEW COOKE, 

Chief Executive Horticultural Officer. 

Sacramento, September 30, 1881. 



72 



INDEX. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Acacia, etc., Scale Insect 42 

Aphidce, Plant-Lice 50 

Apple Root-Louse 51 

Black Scale 35 

Borers, Currant, etc 25 

Caterpillars 22 

Caterpillars, C. americana . 24 

Caterpillars, C. eonstricta 22 

Caterpillars, 0. leucostigma 24 

CodlinMoth 13 

Codlin Moth, broods of 15, 71 

Codlin Moth, in Peaches, Plums, etc 71 

Codlin Moth, to distinguish Sex 18 

Common Apple Scale Insect . 37 

Cottony Cushion Scale Insect 38 

Cottony Grape Scale Insect 40 

Currant Borers 25 

Currant Scale Insect 41 

Ellwood 42 

Elm Scale Insect 42 

Experiments 55 

Fruit Boxes, return 52 

Growth, Structure, etc., of Trees 04 

Horticultural Commissioners,County Boards 

of 7 

Horticultural Commissioners, State Board of. 6 

Horticultural Law fl 

Horticulturists should learn 56 

Lye of Wood Ashes 42 

Mealy Bug 40 

Natural Remedies 48 

Norfolk Island Pine Scale Insect 4L 

Nozzles for Spraying Trees 40 

Nursery Stock, Scale on 52 

Olive Trees 5_.___ 42 

Orchard Property, Damage to 12 

Ornamental Trees, Scale, etc 42 

Oyster Shell Bark-Louse 37 

Pear Slug 19 

Pumps 46 



Page. 

Quarantine, necessity of 54 

Red Scale . 38 

Red Spider 21 

Remedies, Apple and Pear Trees infested 

by Scale Insects 43 

Remedies, Apple Root-Louse.., 51 

Remedies, Black Scale 44 

Remedies, Caterpillars 23. 24, 25 

Remedies, CodlinMoth 16 

Remedies, Common Apple Scale Insect 37 

Remedies, Cottony Cushion Scale Insect 45 

Remedies, Cottony Grape Scale Insect 45 

Remedies, Currant Borers, etc. 27 

Remedies, Elm, etc., Trees, Scale Insect 45 

Remedies, Mealy Bug 41 

Remedies, Norfolk Island Pine Scale Insect. 41 

Remedies, Olive Trees, Black Scale 36, 42 

Remedies, Ornamental Trees, Scale Insect. 42 

Remedies, Oyster Shell Bark-Louse 37 

Remedies, Peach, Plum, etc., Trees, Scale 

Insects 43 

Remedies, Pear Slug 19 

Remedies, Red Scale Insect 39 

Remedies, Red Spider 22 

Remedies, San Jose Scale Insect 34 

Remedies, Santa Cruz Scale Insect 34 

Remedies, Saw Fly 21 

Remedies, Smut (D.) 44 

Remedies, Soft Orange Scale Insect 36 

Remedies, White Scale Insect 35 

Report, Scale Insects, Prof. Comstock 28 

Report, Scale Insects, Messrs. Chapin and 

Vestal 57 

Rules and Regulations recommended 11 

Saw Fly 20 

Scale Insects 2S 

Smut 31 

Soft Orange Scale Insect 36 

Structure, etc., of Trees, Col. W. S. Clark .. 04 

Tent Caterpillar 24 

Tussock Moth 24 

Viticultural Commissioners, State Board 

of 5 

Viticultural Law 8 

White Scale, or Rose Scale, Insect 35 

Woolly Aphis 50 



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